1	Japanese Americans in Arizona Oral History Project Co-coordinators Doris Asano and Karen J. Leong Made possible with a grant from the Arizona Humanities Council and sponsorship by the JACL Arizona and ASU Asian Pacific American Studies Program
2	Co-Sponsors JACL Arizona Chapter ASU Asian Pacific American Studies Program Arizona Buddhist Temple Japanese American National Museum Japanese Senior Center Arizona Historical Society and Museum
3	Why Japanese Americans in Arizona? Arizona is unique Location Demographic composition The Japanese American community in AZ is unique This community’s history has not been fully recorded
4	1920 United States Census Form
5	Eto Y, head of household, Clarendon, AZ
6	"1930 Census"
7	1930 U.S. Census
8	"Age at marriage" Age at marriage? The Etos were married when Mr. Eto was 32 and Mrs. Eto was 20. Occupation: Mr. Eto no longer worked as a gardener and was now a truck farmer.
9	But what don’t we know about the Eto family? Mr. Eto’s every day life as a truck farmer: What did he grow? Where did he sell? Did he have regular clientele? How had Mr. Eto been able to buy a home, and why had he decided to go into truck farming? Living among a primarily Mexican American population, did he speak Spanish?
10	What else don’t we know? Mrs. Eto’s every day life What was a typical day like for Mrs. Eto? What kinds of work was she responsible for? Who were her friends? How did she take care of nine children? What did the children do? What was school like? What did the children contribute to the household?
11	What more do we want to know? Did the Etos interact with their neighbors very often? As the only Japanese American family in the entire county, what constituted their community? What social activities did the Etos participate in and with whom?
12	Researching the past How did Arizonans respond to Japanese Americans when they first arrived? What kinds of relationships existed between Japanese Americans and the various ethnic groups in Arizona? Were these relationships characterized by cooperation, competition, conflict? What have Japanese Americans contributed to Arizona’s history?
13	Recording the stories Family stories and memories will provide a more personal view of the Japanese American experience in Arizona. Why did families choose to relocate to Arizona? How did Japanese Americans build a community in Arizona? What institutions– school, church, cultural activities, holidays– contributed to a sense of community?
14	Asking new questions What was the Japanese American community in Arizona like from settlement to the 1930s? Social activities Work activities Family life Cultural activities
15	Asking new questions What was it like growing up in Arizona during the 1930s and 1940s?
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18	Asking new questions How did Arizona change through the 1930s and 1940s, and how did this affect the community? Population and demographics Economic development World War II Resettlement and Relocation
19	Writing a History Preserves the community’s history Presents a spectrum of Japanese American experiences in Arizona that may not have been heard before Enriches our understanding of Arizona history Provides a richer and deeper understanding of growing up Japanese American in Arizona during a significant time in American history
20	How will this project succeed? This project is a community-based project Community members have the most important resource: stories, memories, information Community involvement in recording stories of family members and friends Community support and enthusiasm to keep the project going
21	Creating Community in the Desert Japanese Americans in Arizona
22	Japanese Immigration to U.S. Arrived beginning in the late 19th century Many were recruited as labor after the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 to Hawai’i and California 1907 Gentleman’s Agreement: Japan agreed to not issue passports to Japanese laborers to enter Hawai’i or U.S. 1910-1924 Height of Japanese immigration to United States through kinship ties Source: Sucheng Chan, Asian Americans: An Interpretive History (NY: Twayne, 1993)35-39.
23	First Generation: Issei Japanese-born individuals who migrated to the United States were first generation Japanese Americans, or Issei. Second generation Japanese Americans were known as Nisei Persons born in Japan could not become naturalized U.S. citizens
24	Naturalized Citizenship Denied 1790 Naturalization Law granted citizenship to any free, white person 1870 Reconstruction: citizenship extended to “persons of African nativity or descent” 1922 Ozawa v. United States 1923 United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind Source: Sucheng Chan, Asian Americans: An Interpretive History (*NY: Twayne, 1993) 47.
25	Anti-Asian Legislation Responses to Asians in the United States key in development of immigration and constitutional law Reflect what was widely thought to be “normal” and “familiar” as opposed to what was “abnormal” and “foreign” Asian challenges and strategies to these laws demonstrate resistance as well as a strong belief in the rights of the United States Constitution
26	Japanese Americans in Arizona: initial patterns Secondary or terciary migration Earliest permanent settler in Maricopa County -- 1906 Early 1900s: laborers (mostly single, male) Railway construction in Williams Service workers in mining towns: cooks, servants 1909 and 1910s: Ads from the Prescott paper for a Japanese Club Agricultural workers Sources: Eric Walz, “The Issei Community in Maricopa County: Development and Persistence in the Valley of the Sun, 1900-1940.” http://www.library.arizona.edu/wracamps/walzbio.htm Accessed 9/8/99. 2-3; communication with Andrew Russell; and Lorri Carlson, archivist, Sharlot Hall Museum, Prescott, AZ.
27	Japanese Americans in Arizona: later pre-war patterns of settlement By 1910s: More farmers, and more family migrations Maricopa County Mesa and Lehi Baseline along South Mountain (flower growers) Glendale (largest community of Japanese Americans; strawberries the dominant crop) Tolleson/Avondale The majority leased land and grew truck crops Alien Land Law, 1913: unable to purchase land; 1921 tougher revisions to land laws. Children who were born in the United States enjoyed birthright citizenship, and the land would be registered in their children’s names. The parents, as guardians, “managed” the land for their children. Source: Walz, 3;
28	Social interactions Mesa 1910s The Free Methodist Church and People’s Mission work with the Japanese Mission in Salt River Valley Efforts to evangelize to Japanese Raise funds to purchase literature from Japan World War I Mesa Daily Tribune April 1917: H. O. Koneka (Japanese Association) and Shiro Koike recruit Japanese in Mesa for Red Cross Work. 30 Japanese in the Mesa area join the Red Cross Intent to provide local military unit with produce and berries. “Now the decision open to the people of Mesa is just this. Are the Japanese to be foremost in the Mesa Red Cross work?” The next day: American flag torn from two stores, including the Japanese pool hall.
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30	Community strategies Arizona Japanese Association All male Founded 1910; social, cultural and political role Cooperation on wages for workers Shared knowledge about markets, shippers
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32	Community Strategies Informal knowledge Farming techniques: strawberries and melons Klondike strawberries Land available for rent
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34	Noburu and Sueko Takiguchi, c. early 1920s
35	Early Settlement in Arizona Arizona’s Japanese American population was less than 10% of the Japanese American population in either Hawai’i or California through 1940 1920 United States Census: Arizona: 287 residents born in Japan California: 32,985 residents born in Japan Hawai’i : 35,007 residents born in Japan 1930 United States Census: 283 residents in Arizona were born in Japan Sources: United States Bureau of the Census, 1920 Census and 1930 Census data for Arizona
36	Continued Community Buddhist Church Began in 1933 with arrival of Rev. Hozen Seki Church building established in 1936 by members Japanese Free Methodist Church Church building dedicated in 1932 Japanese language schools Glendale and Mesa Attended on weekends Source: Walz, 8-9.
37	Cultural Retention The small yet concentrated number of Japanese Americans in Maricopa ironically resulted in stronger efforts of cultural retention Japanese Language School Japanese dance (Mesa) Japanese martial arts (Mesa and Phoenix) New Year’s celebrations The Emperor’s birthday
38	Arizona Japanese Buddhist Church, c. late 1930s
39	Japanese Americans in Arizona: Pre-war Violence Contributing factors: Racism: fear of “undesirable residents” who, because of their race, were not seen as American but foreigners Economic depression: 1929 Depression hurt cotton farmers (the more profitable crops in Maricopa County) Economic success of Japanese Americans from truck crops (local markets as opposed to national or international markets), particularly cantaloupe in 1934 1934: 10 Japanese farmers assaulted; total of 69 farmers experienced violence during the anti-alien movement Source: Masakazu Iwata, Planted in Good Soil: A History of the Issei in United States Agriculture (NY: Peter Lang, 1992) 681-684, 699
40	1934 Attempts to remove Japanese Americans from Maricopa County August: Anti-Alien Association urged farmers to leave farms and homes, or face violence 1500 farmers drove through Phoenix with signs: “Get Out or Be Put Out by August 25” “We don’t need Asiatics” “Jap Moving Day August 25” Source: Iwata, 688-689
41	Resistance Japanese farmers pooled resources to hire lawyers to represent them JACL Los Angeles Chapter representatives traveled to Phoenix Japanese government also sent Los Angeles Vice Consul to talk with the state and local officials Source: Iwata, 684-699
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43	International dimensions of ethnic conflict Fearing that tensions in Arizona might affect US relations with Japan, the US government sought to ease the situation Ironically, Japan’s increasing strength at this time would protect the Japanese Americans, even as its hostility in 1941 would harm the Japanese American
44	Continued tensions Japanese Americans moved out of the area, some out of the state Decline from 8000 acres farmed by Japanese Americans to 3000 Continued threats of legal action against those remaining farmers under the Alien Land Laws Source: Iwata, 699-700.
45	Contributions of Japanese Americans to the development of Arizona, late 19th century-1940 Development of state infrastructure and economy Railroad workers Hachiro Onuki who founded Phoenix Illuminating Gas and Electric Company (APS) First to export cantaloupes and lettuce out of state in volume Introduced Klondike strawberries as a lucrative crop Innovations in agricultural technology that were then applied by farmers throughout the state Possibly first shoyu (soy sauce) factory in continental U.S. Source: Iwata, 674-675, 700-701
46	December 7, 1941
47	FBI detains suspicious persons On December 8, 1941, the FBI detained 1700 “enemy aliens” on the West Coast. These were individuals of German, Italian, and Japanese ancestry, mostly community leaders. By March 1942, Japanese represented over 50% of the persons arrested. Japanese in Peru and other Latin American countries also were arrested and sent to the United States during the war to reside prison camps in Crystal City, Texas. Source: Chan, 122-3
48	Wartime Propaganda The media became a tool for the Allies and Axis Powers during World War II. Wartime Propaganda was at its height. The Japanese were portrayed as less human than any of the other axis powers in US propaganda.
49	Anti-Asian Legislation Responses to Asians in the United States key in development of immigration and constitutional law Reflect what was widely thought to be “normal” and “familiar” as opposed to what was “abnormal” and “foreign” Asian challenges and strategies to these laws demonstrate resistance as well as a strong belief in the rights of the United States Constitution
50	National loyalties in question
51	"The FBI stated that all..." The FBI stated that all potentially dangerous individuals had been detained. J. Edgar Hoover saw no reason to detain additional persons of Japanese descent for reasons of national security.
52	Mid-January 1942 California congressman Leland Ford requested that “all Japanese, whether citizens or not, be placed in inland concentration camps” in Congress. Anti-Japanese groups from West Coast ask FDR to remove all persons of Japanese descent from the West Coast, regardless of citizenship. Source: Chan, 124-5
53	Late January, 1942 Headed by Supreme Court Justice Owen J. Roberts, the committee investigating the attacks on Pearl Harbor issues a report alleging that Japan’s attack was possible due to Japanese American spies in Honolulu. Sucheng Chan notes, “No evidence has ever been offered for these charges, which were based entirely on racist rumors.” 1942-44: 18 white Americans are charged with spying compared to 0 persons of Japanese descent. Source: Chan, 124-5; and Due Process: Americans of Japanese Ancestry and the United States Constitution 1787-1994 (SF: National Japanese American Historical Society) 66.
54	The Final Recommendation General John L. DeWitt, Commander, Western Defense Command issues this statement: “A Jap’s a Jap. They are a dangerous element… It makes no difference whether he is an American citizen… You can’t change him by giving him a piece of paper.” Source: Due Process, 31.
55	The Constitutionality of Internment The internment of second generation Japanese Americans, or Nisei, violated their civil rights as Americans. Under the constitution, all citizens have the right to due process. (Japanese Americans in Hawai’i constituted over one-third of that territory’s population, yet the commanding general, General Emmons, refused to intern them.)
56	Executive Order 9066 February 19, 1942 Authorized Secretary of War to remove all persons from designated military areas. In later notes, Attorney General Biddle noted that this order was only meant to apply to Japanese Americans.
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59	Dividing a community
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61	Japanese American responses A group of families drove from Los Angeles to Bumblebee Arizona to avoid being relocated. A few families relocated across the dividing line in Glendale and lived with other families.
62	Forced evacuation Although families voluntarily relocated from the military areas, General DeWitt instituted forced evacuation on March 27, 1942. The Wartime Civil Control Authority (WCCA) was formed as the civilian branch of the Western Defense Command, and charged with the evacuation and relocation of the Japanese Americans.
63	Assembly Centers March 30, 1942 Japanese Americans removed from Military Area 1, and placed in temporary relocation detention centers. Most of these were makeshift centers, such as Tanforan, a former race track. Families lived in the horse stables.
64	Where to place 120,000 “enemies”? Politicians throughout western United States did not want to host the Japanese Americans in their states. Governor Osborn stated, “We do not propose to made a dumping ground for enemy aliens from any other state.” Soucre: “Osborne Spurns Plan to Dump Enemy Aliens,” Arizona Republic March 1, 1942. Reprinted in History Behind the Headlines/ Behind Barbed Wire, 23.
65	Intersections Colorado River Relocation Center On the lands of the Colorado River Indians, 1200 occupants Named “Poston” after Arizona pioneer Charles Poston Between Needles and Blythe: hot and arid desert 8000 acres Gila River Indian Reservation Forced removal of indigenous peoples into reservations Forced removal of Japanese Americans as potential enemies into relocation centers housed within reservations Case Study: Gila River and the U.S. government
66	Rivers and Poston Camps, Arizona Gila River Camp (known as “Rivers” and constituting Canal Camp and Butte Camp) July 20, 1942-November 10, 1945 13,348 internees Poston Camp May 8, 1942-November 28, 1945 17,814 internees 31,122 (25+%) Source: Due Process, 54-55.
67	Rapid construction of a makeshift city in the desert
68	Arriving at Poston
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71	Gila River Internment Camp
72	An experiment in social engineering War Relocation Authority formed. Staffed by civilians, this agency ran the camps and relocation and resettlement efforts. Many social scientists sought to explore the impact of internment on the community and individuals. Students from UC Berkeley were asked to keep journals of their experiences (eg Kikuchi Diary) The WRA officials sought to work with the Nisei in order to shape the community to be more typically “American.”
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74	Unexpected results: internal change As the English-speaking nisei began working with WRA officials, the issei men lost their role within the community and family. Tensions existed not only between generations but also between those who supported Japan (partially in response to internment), those who sought to protest internment, and those who sought to demonstrate their loyalty to the United States by cooperating with the WRA.
75	Unexpected results: Cultural Retention While the small numbers of Japanese Americans in Arizona had encouraged the retention of cultural traditions, and gatherings of families spread out throughout the Salt River Valley, for many other Japanese Americans, finding ways to spend time in the camps resulted in a renaissance of Japanese culture. Source: For more information see Evelyn Nakano Glenn, Issei Nisie War Bride (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1988)
76	Kabuki Theater, Poston
77	“Like losing an arm…” Relocation had tremendous impact on the Japanese Americans in Glendale and Mesa who were not interned Continual fears for safety The case of Thomas J. Smith and William O. Titus Cut off from community institutions The Sons and Daughters of the Golden West reach into Arizona during the war; Phoenix Union High School Diversity of Buddhist and Christian experiences
78	JACL Debutante Ball
79	Japanese American Internees’ contributions during wartime Translators for the MIS Well known 442^nd “Go for Broke” unit Completed Parker Dam Produced tons of vegetables during a wartime food shortage
80	Butte Camp Memorial 1945
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82	"November 1945"
83	Impact of relocation on Arizona Vocal racism in California resulted in many families remaining in Arizona for 1-2 years Role of Buddhist Church in Phoenix Some families remained in Arizona and became part of the community Stories of those not interned in Arizona have been overlooked in some ways
84	Postwar Developments Law suit against fuel suppliers in Mesa 1952 Walter-McKarren Act and the “strawberry lobby” 1962 State anti-miscegenation law overturned
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87	Today The two remaining flower stands on Baseline National JACL questioning Patriot Act Continued relationships between Japanese Americans and the Gila River and Colorado River Indian communities