ETHNIC SENSITIVITY
IN SOCIAL WORK
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgments ..... iii
Forward ..... v
PART I: ETHNIC SENSITIVITY IN SOCIAL WORK ..... 1
Chapter 1 - Ethnic Sensitivity in Social Work: An Introduction ..... 3
Culture, the Process-Stage Approach and Strengths Perspective ..... 5
Strengths Perspectives and Cultural Sensitivity ..... 5
Ethnic Sensitive Social Work within Systems Perspectives ..... 7
Cultural Pluralism and Cross-cultural Training ..... 9
Benefits of Cross-cultural Skills and Cultural Knowledge ..... 10
Overview of the Text ..... 11
References and Additional Readings ..... 12
Self-Assessment Exercises ..... 13
Chapter 2 - Cultural Sensitivity in Contexts of Social Work Practice ..... 15
Social Work and Education ..... 16
Ethnic Sensitivity in Social Work Education ..... 16
Social Work in Schools ..... 18
Cross-Cultural Issues in Social Work in the Health Services ..... 20
Social Work in Public Health ..... 21
Cross-Cultural Issues in Medicine and Nursing ..... 22
Cross-Cultural Issues in Psychology, Counseling and Psychotherapy ..... 25
Adaptations to Barriers to Cross-Cultural Therapy ..... 27
Family and Child Welfare Services ..... 29
Cultural Factors in Criminal Justice ..... 31
The Cultural Defense in Criminal Law ..... 32
Multicultural Management in Occupational Social Work ..... 34
Cross-Cultural Perspectives in Administration ..... 36
References and Additional Readings ..... 39
Self Assessment Exercises ..... 41
Chapter 3 - Developing Cross-Cultural Perspectives and Competence ..... 43
Perspectives for Cross-Cultural Learning and Adaptation ..... 44
Anthropological Perspectives as Intercultural Tools ..... 44
Intercultural Effectiveness Skills ..... 45
Strategies for Effective Cross-Cultural Relations ..... 46
Attitudes Toward Change ..... 46
Models of Culture and Human Behavior ..... 46
Developing Cultural Self-Awareness ..... 47
Managing Emotional Reactions ..... 47
Stress Management and Culture Shock Adaptation ..... 48
Managing Cross-Cultural Conflict ..... 48
Cross-Cultural Problem Solving ..... 49
Managing Cultural Attribution and Projection ..... 49
Overcoming Resistance to Cross-Cultural Adaptation ..... 49
Establishing Personal and Social Relations ..... 50
Understanding Social Interaction Rule ..... 50
Developing a Multicultural Self ..... 51
Value Orientations ..... 51
Kluckhohn's Basic Value Orientations ..... 52
Summary: Making It in Intercultural Relations ..... 53
References and Additional Readings ..... 54
Self-Assessment Exercises ..... 55
Values Assessment Exercise I ..... 55
Values Assessment Exercise II ..... 57
Chapter 4 - Culture and Human Behavior ..... 59
Human Behavior: "Layers of Understanding" ..... 60
The Concept of Culture ..... 60
Culture, Biology and Human Needs ..... 61
Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Gender and Sex ..... 62
Effects of Socialization ..... 63
Unconscious Cultural Acquisition ..... 64
Behavioral Determinism ..... 64
Cultural Adaptation and Integration ..... 65
Intercultural Variation ..... 66
The Ecology of Human Development ..... 66
Life Cycle Human Development in Cross-Cultural Perspective ..... 67
Erikson's Psychosocial Theory of Human Development ..... 67
Culture and Cognition ..... 68
Behavioral and Communication Styles ..... 69
Relational and Task Orientations ..... 70
Communication Dimensions, Processes and Styles ..... 70
References and Additional Readings ..... 71
Self-Assessment Exercises ..... 73
Chapter 5 - Processes and Dynamics of Intergroup Relations ..... 75
Cross-Cultural Contact and Conflict ..... 76
Culture Shock ..... 77
Causes of Cultural Shock ..... 78
Phases/Stages of Cultural Shock ..... 78
Ingroup Versus Outgroup Dynamics ..... 79
Ethnocentrism ..... 80
The Ethnocentric Syndrome ..... 82
Prejudice and Discrimination ..... 82
Classic and Normative Views ..... 83
Prejudice ..... 85
Discrimination ..... 86
Explanations of Prejudice and Discrimination ..... 88
Attribution and Interpretation ..... 89
Types of Causal Attributions ..... 90
Cultural Attribution ..... 91
Stereotypes and Cultural Characterizations ..... 92
Psychodynamic Process in Intercultural Relations ..... 93
Minority Status: Psychology and Self-Esteem ..... 95
Dynamics of Individual and Group Intercultural Accommodations ..... 96
Integration and Segregation ..... 96
Assimilation ..... 99
Theories of Assimilation ..... 100
Cultural Pluralism ..... 102
References and Additional Readings ..... 103
Self-Assessment Exercises ..... 105
Chapter 6 - Race, Ethnicity and Identity ..... 109
The Concept of Race ..... 110
Race in Historical Perspective ..... 110
The Modern Concepts of Race ..... 112
Skin Color and Racial Distinctions ..... 113
Racism and Ideology ..... 116
Ethnicity ..... 117
Classic Perspectives on Ethnicity ..... 117
Ethnic Categories ..... 119
The Construction of Ethnicity ..... 120
Ethnic Label Conventions of the Text ..... 122
Acculturation and Individual Identity ..... 123
Stages of Ethnic Identity Development ..... 125
Minority Ethnic Identity Development ..... 125
Dominant Groups' Development of Ethnic Awareness ..... 126
Multicultural Ethnic Identity Development ..... 127
Hoopes' Intercultural Learning Cycle ..... 129
References and Additional Readings ..... 131
Self-Assessment Exercises ..... 133
Chapter 7 - Culture and Cultural Systems Models ..... 137
Cultures and Societies ..... 138
The Cultural System: The Pyramid of Culture ..... 140
General Systems Theory and Open Cultural Systems ..... 141
Conflict Perspectives in Cultural Systems Approaches ..... 143
Infrastructure: The Technoeconomic System ..... 144
Ecology and Demography: The Population-Environment Interface ..... 144
Technology and Subsistence ..... 144
Economic Systems and Society ..... 145
Social Organization and Structure: Domestic and Political ..... 147
Social Organization and Behavior ..... 147
Family and Kinship ..... 149
Political Structures ..... 150
Levels of Sociopolitical Organization ..... 150
Politics of Intercultural Contact: Group Level Dynamics ..... 152
Forms of Intergroup Contact ..... 152
Institutionalized Discrimination ..... 154
Social Stratification ..... 156
Superstructure: Ideology, World View and Identity ..... 158
Language and Communication ..... 159
Socialization and Education ..... 159
Cultural Values ..... 160
Religion and Cosmology ..... 160
Expressive Culture ..... 161
Ethnicity and Group Psychology ..... 162
References and Additional Readings ..... 162
Self-Assessment Exercises ..... 165
Chapter 8 - Psychocultural Models for Understanding Ethnicity ..... 167
A Psychocultural Open Systems Approach to Ethnicity ..... 168
Culture, Psychology and Ethnicity ..... 168
Psychological Anthropology: Culture and Psychology ..... 169
Intercultural Psychocultural Variation ..... 169
Personality and Self ..... 170
Assessing Personality ..... 171
Indigenous Psychologies ..... 172
Social Roles and Cultural Self ..... 173
Socialization ..... 175
Evolutionary Population Psychology: The Socialization of Biology ..... 176
The Psychocultural Model ..... 178
Advantages of the Psychocultural Approach ..... 181
References and Additional Readings ..... 184
Self-Assessment Exercise ..... 185
PART II: AMERICAN ETHNIC GROUPS: A PSYCHOCULTURAL PERSPECTIVE ..... 189
Chapter 9 - European Americans: "White America ..... 191
FOUNDATIONS OF THE AMERICAN WAY OF LIFE ..... 192
The Colonial Systems: Charter or Joint-Stock Companies ..... 192
Infrastructure: Land and Labor ..... 193
Social Organization: Family and Community ..... 194
Political Life: The Assemblies and Intergroup Relations ..... 195
Intergroup Relations: Amalgamation and Segregation ..... 196
Ideology: Religion and Business ..... 196
Early American Psychology: Puritan Minds and Republican Bodies ..... 197
The New Republic ..... 200
Infrastructure: Expansion and the Market Revolution ..... 200
Social and Political Organization ..... 201
American Government and Manifest Destiny ..... 202
Intergroup Relations: Anglo Dominance and Assimilation ..... 204
TWENTIETH CENTURY WHITE AMERICA ..... 206
Infrastructure: Immigration, Reproduction and Economic Transformation ..... 208
Economic Production: The Industrial Revolution and Beyond ..... 209
Social Organization: Family and Political Life ..... 210
Family Organization and Dynamics ..... 211
Social Stratification and Mobility ..... 212
Politics in American Life ..... 212
Intergroup Relations: Assimilation and Cultural Pluralism ..... 214
Society and Social Work Values ..... 215
Superstructure: The American Cultural Dialogue ..... 216
The Cultural Core: The Mainstream Referent Group ..... 216
Basic American Values ..... 219
American Ethnicity ..... 222
Social Interaction Rules ..... 224
Health Beliefs and Practices ..... 227
References and Additional Readings ..... 230
Chapter 10 - Native Americans: The "First Nations" ..... 233
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND ..... 234
Prehistoric Native American Cultural Patterns ..... 234
Culture Development Sequences ..... 234
Social Communities ..... 235
European Contact and Social Transformation ..... 237
Economic Transformation: Commerce and Colonization ..... 238
Social Organization: Domestic and Political Transformations ..... 239
The Closing Frontier: Total War and the Reservation System ..... 240
The Developing Reservations ..... 240
The Californian Indians' "Apprenticeships" ..... 241
The Plains Indian Wars ..... 242
The Reservation: Confinement and Re-Socialization ..... 243
Domestic Disruption and Political Domination ..... 244
Re-Socialization: Boarding Schools and Religious Repression ..... 246
TWENTIETH CENTURY NATIVE AMERICANS ..... 247
Infrastructure: Reservation and Urban Life ..... 248
Demographics: Population Resurgence and the "Official Indians" ..... 248
The Technoeconomic System: Government Employment ..... 250
Social and Political Organization: Family and Nation ..... 251
Family, Kin and "All My Relations" ..... 251
Native American Social Organization ..... 253
Native American Politics: Two Steps Forward, One Step Back ..... 254
Congregational Acts ..... 255
Intergroup Relations: Native American Political Resurgence ..... 259
Superstructure: Cultural Persistence and Spiritual Resurgence ..... 261
Socialization and Education: Boarding School to Tribal College ..... 261
Psychocultural Perspectives on Native Americans ..... 263
Native American Identity ..... 266
Social Interaction Rules ..... 267
Health Beliefs and Practices ..... 270
References and Additional Readings ..... 274
Chapter 11 - African Americans: Black in White America ..... 275
HISTORICAL CONTEXT: SLAVERY ..... 276
Africans in Colonial America ..... 276
Infrastructure: Plantation Slavery ..... 276
Social Structure: The Organization of Slavery ..... 276
Superstructure: African American Culture ..... 278
The American Revolution ..... 280
The Diversification of Slavery ..... 281
Family, Community and Politics ..... 282
Superstructure: African American Culture and Psychology ..... 284
Post-Abolition America ..... 285
THE TWENTIETH CENTURY ..... 289
Infrastructure: The Urbanization of African Americans ..... 289
Demographic and Reproductive Trends ..... 289
Structural Segregation in the Economic System ..... 290
Causes of Economic Deprivation ..... 292
Social Organization: Family, Kinship, Church and Community ..... 294
African American Family Structures ..... 295
Kinship Networks ..... 298
African American Churches ..... 299
African American Segregation and Stratification ..... 300
African American Leadership and Political Struggle ..... 302
The Civil Rights Movement ..... 304
Intergroup Relations ..... 307
Superstructure: African American Psychocultural Dynamics ..... 308
Socialization ..... 309
African American Psychology ..... 311
Identity: Internal Variation and Acculturation ..... 313
Social Interaction Dynamics ..... 315
Intergroup Relations and Communication ..... 320
Health Beliefs and Practices ..... 321
References and Additional Readings ..... 328
Chapter 12 - Hispanic Americans: La Raza Cosmica ..... 331
NEW SPAIN AND THE NORTHERN FRONTIER ..... 332
Infrastructure: Colonial Production and the Mercantile System ..... 332
Organization of Labor ..... 332
Social Structure: Conquistador, Mestizo and Crown ..... 333
Political Organization: The Crown's Administrative System ..... 334
Superstructure: Catholicism and Mestizo Psychology ..... 335
The Church and Missions ..... 336
Mestizo Psychology ..... 337
Intergroup Relations in the Northern Frontier ..... 337
THE AMERICAN CONQUEST OF MEXICO ..... 338
U.S. Settlements and War with Mexico ..... 339
The Southwest as an Internal Colony ..... 340
Economic and Political Incorporation ..... 341
Social Organization: Domestic and Political Transformation ..... 342
Superstructure: The Persistence of Mexican Culture ..... 343
TWENTIETH CENTURY DEVELOPMENT OF HISPANIC AMERICA ..... 344
Puerto Rico: Borinquen Bella ..... 345
Infrastructure: Colony and Migrant Workers ..... 346
From Colony to Labor Pool ..... 346
Social Organization: Family and Political Life ..... 347
Family Life ..... 347
Politics: Colony and Commonwealth ..... 348
Intergroup Relations: Neither Black nor White ..... 350
Superstructure: Puerto Rican Cultural Persistence in the U.S. ..... 351
MEXICAN AMERICANS ..... 352
Infrastructure: Economic Transformation and the Labor Struggle ..... 353
Demography: Immigration and Dispersion ..... 353
Subsistence: From Farm to Factory and Service Economy ..... 354
Labor and Economic Organization ..... 356
Social Structure: Family, Community and Political Struggles ..... 357
La Familia ..... 357
Segregation ..... 358
Political Background and Organizations ..... 359
Hispanic Political Organizations ..... 361
Superstructure: La Raza Cosmica ..... 363
Group Identity and Psychocultural Dynamics ..... 365
Socialization and Development ..... 367
Gender Psychology: Machisimo and Marianismo ..... 371
Social Interaction Rules ..... 373
Health Beliefs and Practices ..... 376
References and Additional Readings ..... 381
Chapter 13 - Asian and Pacific Americans: The New Immigrants ..... 383
THE CHINESE IN NINETEENTH CENTURY AMERICA ..... 384
Infrastructure: Immigrant Labor ..... 385
Social Organization: Clan, Company and Tong ..... 386
Chinese Organization: The Chinese Six Companies and Secret Societies ..... 386
Intergroup Relations: Rejecting the Yellow Hordes ..... 388
Superstructure: Chinese Cultural Persistence in the U.S. ..... 390
THE HAWAIIANS ..... 391
Infrastructure: The Demographic and Economic Transformation ..... 393
Family, Community and Political Life ..... 394
Superstructure: The Persistence of Hawaiian Culture ..... 395
THE JAPANESE: ISSEI, NISEI SANSEI AND YONSEI ..... 397
Infrastructure: Immigrant Laborers, Ethnic Economy and Professionalization ..... 397
Demography: The Immigrant Student Laborer ..... 398
Subsistence: From Agriculturists to Business Professionals ..... 399
Economic Systems: The Ethnic Economy ..... 400
Japanese American Social Structure: Ie as Family and Community ..... 402
Family Organization: The Ie Household ..... 402
Community Organization ..... 403
Political Relations: Restriction, Internment and Compensation ..... 405
Intergroup Relations ..... 407
Superstructure: Cultural Survival and Acculturation ..... 407
Cultural Values ..... 407
Socialization and Education ..... 409
WAR AND ASIAN IMMIGRATION ..... 411
The Filipinos ..... 411
The Chinese Americans in the Twentieth Century ..... 413
The Indochinese of Southeast Asians ..... 417
Pan Asian American Culture ..... 420
Health Beliefs and Practices ..... 425
References and Additional Readings ..... 429
Chapter 14 - Epilogue: Future U.S. Ethnic Relations ..... 431
Historical Patterns of Interethnic Relations ..... 432
Enhancing Cultural Pluralism ..... 435
Index ..... 437
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