Discuss the musical traditions of India, Arab area, and Java as vehicles for unifying "this world” or “human reality” with “other worlds” and powers, both past and present. /Juiching Wang
Culture, as defined by anthropologists, is a people’s way of life, learned and transmitted through the centuries of adapting to the natural and human world. Music and religion, being part of cultural elements, have well demonstrated the development of human civilization. Therefore, both in the studies of music and religion, it is necessary to carefully examine the context of human life. In other words, music and religion are not separable from the world nor from each other, since music always serves as the vehicle for unifying human reality with the religious world, both in the past and present.
The following paragraphs will give a brief overview on how the cultures of India, Arab and Java regard their music through the religious point of view, such as Buddhism, Hinduism, Islamic and Animism.
Indian Music
According to David Reck’s article India/South India, the Indian music has been long associated with religion (Reck: 1996). The evidences are from some sculptures on the ancient temples and palaces as well as miniature paintings. They all demonstrate a visual record of musical instruments, and the where and how of performance through several thousand years. Besides this, there are many references to music in the Indian epics, such as the Mahabharata and Ramayana and some other stories and religious writings, such as Veda.
There are two main traditions in Indian classical music, both of which have close relationship with their religious beliefs. The Karnatic is from the south and the Hidustani tradition is from the north. Although both of these use the concepts of ragas (the melodic modes) and talas (rhythmic cycles), there are differences existing between these two styles. Northern style, the Hindustani music tradition, employ instruments such as the sitar, sarod, sarangi and tabla, which were greatly influenced by Persia and other elements of Islam for culturally speaking, northern India has been dominated by Islam since the Muslim invasion in the 13th century. The structure of a composition is also different. With less strict composed sections, the music of broad improvisations shows its brilliant virtuosity. It is this unique improvisation style that serves as a tool for the Indians of the north to meditate about the relationship with gods and the universe.
Compared with the north, Karnatic in the south is much more orthodox in its Hindusim tie. The music is built around a great repertoire of pre-composed songs, which were done by the musicians who devoted themselves to their gods centuries ago. Most compositions are vocal music with the parts of solo (either vocal or violin) and accompaniment (mridangam). The role of music is to please the gods; and therefore, music is considered a “personal mode of religious expression” (Benary: 1971).The melodic pattern of the solo part along with the ancient sacred text either in Sanskrit or Telegu has a superior position to that of other parts. Kritit, a Karnatic form, is an example of this.
Although there was already music tradition existing in the Arabic area in the pre-Islam period, it was after the successful establishment of Islam in the middle of the 7th century that the Arab music tradition started to develop systematically. The music of Arab, closely related to Islamic belief, is referred to as Pan Islamic music tradition in this discussion, which includes the geographical areas of Libya, Egypt, Palestine, Phoenicia, Syria, Iraq, and Persia. Vocal music is predominant in this tradition, partially because of Muslims’ being exposed to the recitation of Qur’an, the Holy Book of Islam. The Adhan (call to prayer), recited by Muezzin five times a day in the Minaret of Mosque, although not being considered as “music” by the Muslims, provides a basic structure and style for Arabian vocal music. The free rhythmic pattern, neumatic and malesmatic embellishment of a melody, holding long notes, and keeping silent between long phrases are all characteristics of Adhan singing as well as the vocal music in Arabian area. Some elements of this vocal style have influenced the Arab instrumental music greatly. Maqam phenomenon is one of these elements.
According to Touma, Maqam, unique to Arabian art music, is a technique of improvisation, which created by the combination of tetrachords of different scales, types and pitch levels or melodic modes,. It is also the root of all genres of improvised vocal and instrumental music both in secular and sacred styles of the Arabs.
Music is not considered to be a
necessity for the Muslims to worship their god since there is no scripture
indicating either expressly forbidding or allowing the appearance of music in
Qur’an; however, music is closely associated with the religious belief. In
addition to worshiping god by reciting sacred texts, indirect influence from the
religious concepts to both sacred and secular music is also seen in many ways.
The emphasis on center tone of each different maqam is a reflection of their
monotheistic religion, which believes in their only god-Alla. Muslim’s strict
doctrine is also seen in the ways of modulations take place in a Taqasim
performance. Maqams are not allowed to modulate to each other arbitrarily. The
musicians need to master and follow certain types of music theory so they can
improvise within the principle.
Javanese Music
The polyphonic stratification structure of Javanese Gamelan music is another example of how religions merge with music. Gamelan, the percussion-dominated music ensemble has different layers happening simultaneously when it is performed. Just like a group of people working together in a society, different groups of instruments have their own functions to play and interact with each other closely. Although Islam is the dominant religion in the island of Java now, the other religions, such as Buddhism, Hinduism, and Animism all have greatly influenced Javanese culture development for centuries. The way Javanese respect their instruments is a reflection of their ancient animistic belief. They believe that everything around them in the world has its own spirit. All the creatures have to live together under a certain type of arrangement, such as the caste system existing in the ancient time and in the music instruments (e.g. Gong possesses the highest status of the whole ensemble), which illustrates the Hindu religious thoughts. The concept of music making also demonstrates these religious elements. For example, the phenomenon of music being played on and on in a circle form reflects the Hindu belief that everything takes place in a circle, which the end is the beginning and the beginning becomes the end.
Wayang Kulit, the shadow play in Javanese, also presents the elements originated from different religious beliefs. The worship of ancestors is very essential to the Javanese. They believe that they may have reunions with their ancestors through watching the performance of Wayang Kulit. And it is through the Wayang Kulit that many ancestors’ thoughts, concepts, and commands are transmitted. Dalang, the puppeteer, who plays the role of mediator, is the most important figure in the Wayang Kulit performance. He not only manipulates the puppets and narrates the stories, but also directs the gamlean ensemble to accompany the whole theatre. His status in a village (or a society) is like an elder who always receives respect from the others around him. His capability of changing voices into soft, loud, gentle, or rude styles according to the different characters, speaking different languages, and lasting for a nine- hour performance without taking any break, somehow makes a connection to Shamanistic power.
The stories, mainly based on the Hindu epics of Mahabhrata and Ramayan, show the influences from Hinduism. Hundreds of puppets are made according to the descriptions from these epics. There are five categories of puppets. The unique character of each puppet in its level coincides with the caste system of Hinduism. The whole play, which lasts for nine hours (usually from 9:00PM to 6:00AM) is divided into three acts. Each has its main theme and indicates different stages of human life (youth period, mature middle period, and elder period). A complete play is a reflection of a cycle of human life.
Conclusion:
Indian, Arabian, and Javanese music provide the insights of the undivided relationship between music and religions. What religious beliefs serve in these cultures is a way of communication for people to either worship their god(s) or merely meditate their own relationship with the gods. This relationship exists in both sacred and secular music in many different cultures around the world. The study of music, therefore, always needs to be considered from many different facets of human cultures. The relationship between human reality and mysterious power is an illustration of this concept.