Cicero (106-43 BCE)
Cicero (106-43 BCE)
- born
Italy (upper middle class)
-
1st pub Of Invention 84 BCE--concentrates on uses of stasis theory to define
arguments on forensic speeches and on proper formation of the parts of a forensic
speech--he later discounted the work
-
quickly became one of the most noted speakers in Rome--with eloquence he overcame
class barriers and was elected to high office
-
style characterized by amplification--naming same thing 2-3 diff ways in succession
-
Cicero's work dominated rhetoric up to time of the Renaissance and was strongly
influential thereafter
-
his rhetorical theory collected most of what is known about Socrates, Plato
and Aristotle
- known
for his attacks on/speech against Marc Anthony
- lawyer:
prose, uses amplification to evoke heightened emotion
- the best
orator can fulfill three offices: teaching, pleasing, and moving (to right
action)
- in Of
Oratory he combines he most important views of Isocrates and Plato--argues
that natural ability most important for success in public speaking--practice
alone is not enough
- broad
learning in law, hist., literature, etc is essential
- orator
must bring considerable knowledge to rhetorical situation
- audience
will take moral tone from orator
Of Oratory/De Oratore
- addressed
to Quintelian
- generally
regarded as his most complete work
- format
imitates Platonic dialogue (though is longer)
- outdoor
setting: explicit emulation of Phaedrus under plane tree
- the Patrician,
Crassus, speaks for Cicero’s own view--oratory as uniting broad learning
and the study of rhetoric and philosophy
- Antonius
agrees that eloquence can profit from instruction only in more narrowly conceived
and formulaic rhetoric(sounds like Socrates)
- strive
to match thoughts and words--appropriate style
- On Oratory,
which superseded his early writing on the subject.
- Cicero
naturally considered political oratory a most important art and great service
to the community.
- The emotions
of the human spirit must be understood intimately and can be used to calm
the feelings of the audience.
- Humor,
wit, culture, and urbane charm are to be used along with a good memory of
history, precedents, and the laws.
- Delivery
depends upon body carriage, gestures, and changing intonations of the voice
Book
I
- Cicero
set his dialog in 91 BC with the orators he admired as a youth - Lucius Licinius
Crassus (his teacher), Marcus Antonius (grandfather of the triumvir), and
others.
- begins
with address to his brother--nostalgia for their student days
- rejects
strictures against rhetoric that Plato set forth in Gorgias and argues that
the rhetorician must master the branch of philosophy devoted to “human
life and conduct”
- oratory
derives “beauty and fullness” from knowledge
- oratory
is important to society and state--it makes civil order possible--ensure safety
oratory and the people
- C. notes
the importance and necessity of knowledge. Natural ability is impt but knowledge
aids natural ability
- Antonius
counters C, suggesting that oratory is no art and one need not have knowledge
but if he imitates good models he can persuade
- Crassus
says oratory is most excellent for winning the good will of people and directing
their inclinations. In free nations that enjoy peace this art reigns supreme.
- One person's
eloquence can transform the impulses of a crowd, the consciences of judges,
and the austerity of the senate; it can lift those cast down, bestow security,
imperil the free, and maintain human rights, defending oneself and challenging
the wicked.
- The ability
to communicate with words is the advantage humans have over the brutes and
is what upholds individual dignity and the safety of the state.
- Scaevola
points out that it also can be used to damage the state. Crassus replies that
the orator can rouse human hearts to anger, hatred or indignation or recall
them from those passions to mercy.
- To achieve
this the speaker needs profound insight into human nature and character and
what motivates souls.
- One must
have broad knowledge, be aware of the relevant facts, but also be able to
shape and polish one's style in fluent speech. Antonius observes that many
Greeks believed only the wise can be truly eloquent and virtuous.
- Sulpicius
Rufus wonders if there is an art of oratory, and Scaevola asks Crassus to
respond as one whose eloquence has excelled in the seat of imperial power.
Crassus begins with his belief that natural talent is the greatest contributor
to oratory.
- Skill
in invention, exposition, embellishment, and memory depend upon intelligence,
and physical gifts are a ready tongue, ringing tones, strong lungs, vigor,
and a suitable body and face.
- A good
orator needs the subtlety of a logician, the thought of a philosopher, poetic
diction, a lawyer's memory, and the voice and bearing of an actor.
- Training
is also important though and requires enthusiasm and passionate desire.
- Diction
should use correct Latin, be lucid, elegant, and fit the dignity of the topic
with grace.
- Learning
to control and train the voice, breathing, gestures, and the tongue depend
on exertion as well as art.
- Learning
pieces by heart can train the memory.
- Crassus
believes the orator should know human nature, ethics, how to arouse and calm
human minds, history, government, and common law.
- Common
law is defined as preserving the impartiality of statutes and customs in the
concerns and disputes of citizens.
- Common
law can be the basis for ethical discussions, because merit is coveted when
fitting exertion wins high office, rewards, and honor, while misdeeds are
punished with fines, degradations, imprisonment, scourging, banishment, and
death.
- People
learn not by debate to control their passions and their hands from taking
what is their neighbor's but by the authoritative decisions of the laws. Crassus
points to the Twelve Tables of laws which teach more than anything else, and
he believes that Roman laws surpass those of Lycurgus, Draco, and Solon. He
also mentions the elements of oratory as invention, style, arrangement, memory,
and delivery.
- Antonius
agrees that the person expert in the statutes and customary law is qualified
to advise others in lawsuits.
- The philosopher
strives to know the significance, nature, and causes of everything human and
divine in order to master a complete theory of right living.
- The orator
needs this and the ability to use agreeable language with arguments that persuade
in legal disputes and public debates.
- Yet Antonius
warns against the orator getting into tactless philosophical discussions that
are not relevant. Philosophers also sometimes disapprove of arguments that
are rhetorically effective. He notes how Socrates defended himself as a teacher
rather than a submissive prisoner and was condemned to death.
- For Antonius
the orator does not need wide knowledge of law, but special points can be
researched; one should not dissipate one's energy over too wide a field of
study. He also believes that virtue can be taught by persuasion without the
threat of punishment, force, and terror. Practice is important.
Book
II
- Cicero
wrote that excellence in oratory depends not only upon training in speaking
but in
pursuing all knowledge as well.
- Crassus
points out the value of leisure, because no one is free who is not sometimes
doing nothing.
- Antonius
states that the orator's duty is to arouse a listless nation and to curb its
impetuosity. By eloquence the deceitful are destroyed, the just delivered,
the virtuous encouraged, the vicious reclaimed, the wicked censured, the worthy
praised, the lawless subdued, and the grieved soothed.
- Antonius
agrees with Aristotle that rhetoric includes speeches of praising as well
as forensic lawsuits and political deliberations. The Romans considered history
as part of rhetoric, though Antonius says that telling the truth and the whole
truth without bias or malice is most important. The historian should also
estimate consequences, expose causes, and reveal the particulars in the lives
and characters of renowned people.
- The orator's
duty is to discuss good and evil in all its ramifications including the state,
sovereignty, war, political science, and the customs of people.
- Antonius
considers most difficult the forensic arguments in courtrooms, where the ignorant
often judge an orator's power. A good speech opens by winning the goodwill
and attention of the audience, states the case plausibly, lucidly, and concisely,
defines the issue, establishes points by evidence and argument, disproves
opposing views, then sums up the case with a peroration.
- The art
of speaking persuades in three ways:
-
- winning
the favor of the listeners,
- instructing
them and proving one's points, and
- arousing
people's feelings; these require a gentle style, acuteness, and energy.
- Speech
reveals one's character, and thus a gentle approach usually gains favor. The
speaker must feel the emotions one wishes to excite.
- The love
of the audience is won by upholding their interests or by working for what
is good and useful.
- The arguments
of the opponents need to be disproved, and emotions can be countered by their
opposites.
- Cicero
has Caesar Vopiscus analyze the difficult subject of wit and humor, giving
many examples. The use of these should be sparing and appropriate. Humor may
derive from ambiguity, the unexpected, plays on words, quotations, taking
words literally, allegory, metaphor, irony, antithetical expressions, comparison,
caricature, understatement, ridicule, and personal retorts. Then Antonius
resumes his discourse, emphasizing the importance of avoiding doing any damage
to one's case. He suggests arranging one's strongest point first.
- Dignity
is important, because everyone values moral worth as the highest goal even
though expediency often wins the day. To move people from the latter to the
former, an exhortation is often helpful. Praise can also be used.
- C. indicts
Soc and Plato for separating philosophy and rhetoric. C admires Sophists and
their application of philosophy
- outlines
much of Aristotle’s system
- duty
of orator is to speak in style fitted to sub and aud
- extol
virtue of audience vi emotions
- virtue
of speaker
- rules
of diction
- Practice
is essential--writing is good practice
- Rules
for practice and performance
- master
facts of the case
- master
facts of the allegations
- master
its nature
- master
it definition
- Topics
favor of audience will need to be secured
Book
III
- orator
needs to know wide culture
- chides
Plato and Socrates for dividing tongue and mind/thought and lang
- three
offices of rhetoric: pleasing, teaching, and persuading
- conveying
the plausible but not necessarily the truth.
- Crassus
discusses embellishing style by making language correct, lucid, ornamental,
and appropriate. One should include the fullest supply of facts. In addition
to praise, censure can also be used to make points. Knowledge can be expressed
through inference, definition, and deduction. Inference discovers; definition
explains; and deduction investigates consequences. Conduct can be discussed
in relation to duty by viewing right and wrong, virtues and vices; or emotions
can be swayed using exhortation, reproach, consolation, compassion, and by
exciting or allaying feelings.
- Crassus
concludes by discussing the use of metaphors and rhythm.