Adams, Karen (Crow Canyon Archaeological Center)
Anthropogenic Ecology in the American Southwest: the Plant Perspective
Natural landscapes respond in a variety of ways to occupation and use by human groups. This topic will be investigated at three spatial (ecosystem, plant population, individual plant) and three temporal (one-two generations, multiple decades, multiple centuries) scales, drawing both upon ethnographic literature and archaeological case studies. Environmental proxy records (tree-ring analyses, pollen cores, pack-rat middens, geomorphological studies) offer useful reconstructions of past environments, biotic communities, and environmental variables that are generally independent of cultural activities. The complex interactions of both natural and cultural influences on landscapes together result in changing human choices, and at times influence landscapes for centuries to come.

Anschuetz, Kurt F. (Rio Grande Foundation for Communities and Cultural Landscapes) and Wilshusen, Richard H. (Colorado College)
Ensouled Places: Ethnogenesis and the Making of the Dinetah and Tewa Basin Landscapes
The Athapaskan groups moving into northern New Mexico during the late fifteenth century were not ethnically identifiable as Diné upon their arrival in this thinly settled mountainous country. Likewise, neither the Pueblo populations moving from the northern San Juan region into the northern Rio Grande during the late thirteenth century nor the valley's indigenous people were ethnically identifiable as Tewa before this relocation. Although the cultural-historical particulars underlying the genesis of Diné and Tewa identities following these movements differ, ethnogenesis in both cases is traceable through actions with which the people affected by movement constructed and incorporated new identities in dynamic relationship with their landscape.

Bernardini, Wesley (University of Redlands) and Fowles, Severin (Barnard College)
Becoming Hopi, Becoming Tiwa: Two Pueblo Histories of Movement
This paper employs controlled comparisons of oral traditions and material culture to examine social dimensions of movement in Hopi and Tiwa ethnogenesis. We call special attention to the different scales of identity that structured interaction between host and immigrant groups. In both the Hopi and Tiwa cases a diversity of identities at relatively small social scales ("clans/peoples") existed beneath an overarching cardinally-based dichotomy. Ritual-based status differences at the larger social scale help to explain processes of pre-contact population aggregation and contemporary community ritual organization.

Clark, Jeffrey J (Center for Desert Archaeology) and Laumbach, Karl W. (Human Systems Research, Inc.)
Pueblo Migrations in the Southern Southwest: Perspectives from Arizona and New Mexico
Recent investigations in the San Pedro Valley of southern Arizona have provided compelling evidence on a regional scale of two successive migrations from the Ancestral Pueblo homeland into the eastern borderlands of the Hohokam World. Concurrent investigations in the Rio Alamosa drainage of west central New Mexico have suggested two successive migrations from the Ancestral Pueblo World into the northern Mogollon World at approximately the same intervals. This paper compares and contrasts data used to detect migrants as well as the timing, tempo, social scale, and ultimate impact of population movement. Similarities and differences between the case studies have methodological and theoretical implications for migration studies that extend beyond the Southwest.

Doelle, William H. (Desert Archaeology, Inc.)
The Vexing Challenges of the Protohistoric Period
The persistent (and therefore vexing) questions related to the Protohistoric period revolve around our failures to adequately document and explain the major continuities and discontinuities of the period from A.D. 1450 to 1700. The challenges are myriad: few absolute dates, low visibility of the archaeological record in some areas, high mobility lifeways for some cultural groups, and few new excavations. These challenges have limited the ability of archaeologists to address the major demographic transition(s) of this time period. There has been some progress in the past 20 years, but this remains a most challenging research arena.

Driver, Jon (Simon Fraser University)
Was Hunting a Sustainable Practice in the American Southwest?
A number of studies have established that animal populations in the Southwest were affected directly by human predation and indirectly by other land and resource management practices. Evidence from animal bones includes reduction in availability of some species (resource depression), changes in the mixture of species exploited, new population structures, alteration of hunting strategies, and increased production of domesticates. These phenomena are contingent on local circumstances and vary in their intensity. When such evidence is encountered, how can we distinguish between short-term adjustments in human/wildlife relationships and long-term unsustainable practices that resulted in significant disruptions to subsistence and other behaviors?

Gilman, Patricia A. (University of Oklahoma) and Whalen, Michael E. (University of Tulsa)
Moving on the Landscape: Mobility and Migration
Twenty years ago, archaeologists had not grappled sufficiently with mobility and sedentism. Now, although we use these concepts more frequently, they have not developed in ways we might have predicted. Instead of continuing to think much about transitions to sedentism, we are instead consumed with the idea of migration, the movements of relatively sedentary people to new permanent locations, and their integration into their new social settings. This single-mindedness could be the result of the continuing and traditional southwestern focus on the post-A.D. 1000 era rather than ways that people used their landscapes earlier in time.

Johnson, David (Bureau of Land Management)
Investigating the Consequences of Long-Term Human Predation of r-Selected Species: Experiments in the Upland Southwest
Recent agent-based simulation of human ecodynamics in the Central Mesa Verde region provides insight on interactions between sedentary households and highly productive lagomorph species. Modeling allows us to investigate the long-term impacts of human hunting in a dynamic landscape on r-selected species in the upland Southwest. Results show that human-induced decreases in black-tailed jackrabbit and desert cottontail population levels and corresponding increases in household energy expenditures are required to maintain adequate protein intake. These findings suggest that over-hunting may well have necessitated the adoption of turkey husbandry to provide an alternate source of meat protein.

Koyiyumptewa, Stewart B. (Hopi Cultural Preservation Office) and Colwell-Chanthaphonh, Chip (Denver Museum of Nature & Science)
The Past is Now: Hopi Connections to Ancient Times and Places
This paper examines the ways in which Hopis conceptualize the past as present, how ancestral sites are places in which ancient events, feelings, and spirits come to life in the here-and-now. Hopi experiences of the past turn on unique concepts of space and time, which can be juxtaposed with archaeological knowledge claims. Based on ethnohistoric research conducted in collaboration with the Hopi Tribe to investigate Hopi cultural landscapes, we suggest that these two ways of looking at the past can be distinctively combined to provide multilayered understandings of Hopi history and culture.

Lekson, Steve (University of Colorado Museum of Natural History)
Historiography and Archaeological Theory at Bigger Scales
The emergence of "world history" in the 1980s marked a reaction against particularistic and biographical history. World History thrives, in times otherwise inimical to grand narrative, because globalization demands it: world history today is world history. Archaeology could deepen World History's document-biased timeframe, if we develop continental-scale questions. The New World provides the best comparative case for the Old World; and the Southwest's most likely role in continental pre-histories will be as a counterpart for Southeast, Intermediate Area, and Caribbean - Mesoamerica's corona, so to speak.

Lipe, William (Washington State University) and Stone, Tammy (University of Colorado, Denver)
Standing Out Versus Blending In: Pueblo Migrations and Ethnic Marking
Well documented migrations occurred in the 13th century from the Mesa Verde region to the northern Rio Grande area and from the Kayenta region to the Mogollon Mountains. This paper compares the reasons for these migrations, the scale and rate of the movement, and the nature of both the initial and long term interaction of the migrant and indigenous populations. Specifically, we ask why migrants 'stand out' as enclaves in some areas (Point of Pines) and 'blend in' in others (Rio Grande) starting with the nature of the migration through the long term consequences of this behavior.

Lyons, Patrick D. (Arizona State Museum), Hill, J. Brett (Center for Desert Archaeology), and Clark Jeffrey J. (Center for Desert Archaeology)
Irrigation Communities and Communities in Diaspora
Irrigation canals trace connections at the scale of community, and ceramic style horizons mark connectivity at a regional scale. In this paper we explore the role of long-term irrigation agriculture, and its unintended consequences (environmental degradation, increased energy costs) in shaping late prehispanic demography in the Hohokam region. We compare and contrast elements of this case study with another focused on material traces of Kayenta immigrants and their descendants born in diaspora. The feasting tradition developed by these groups of northern origin, living in the Hohokam region, seems designed to maintain widespread connections during a time of increasing demographic flux.

McGuire, Randall H. (SUNY Binghamton)
Rethinking Social Power, Inequality, and Regional Interaction in the Aboriginal Southwest/Northwest
For the archaeologists who attended the 1988 Southwest Symposium, few issues were more contested or more volatile than that of social power and inequality among prehispanic peoples. Generations of archaeologists had viewed ethnographic descriptions of Southwestern/Northwestern peoples as perfect analogies for prehispanic social organization. Some processual archaeologists in the 1970s had challenged this view, arguing that aboriginal societies had passed though evolutionary stages and could be classified as egalitarian, ranked or even stratified. By contrast, today's scholars have reframed the issue, constructing more nuanced and relational investigations into inequalities and social power in aboriginal Southwest/Northwest societies.

McPherson, Guy (University of Arizona)
Linking the Past with the Present and Vice-Versa: Resources, Land Use, and the Collapse of Civilizations
Humans have altered land cover in the American Southwest to an astonishing extent. Proximate drivers underlying changes in land cover during the first few decades after European contact were mineral extraction, agricultural expansion, timber removal, and introduction of nonnative species (especially livestock). Within the last few decades, these drivers of change have been supplanted by others, notably including alteration of fire regimes and global climate change. Decreased availability to fossil fuels within the next decade likely will cause the United States economy to collapse, thus ushering in a new era for species assemblages and land cover.

Minnis, Paul E. (University of Oklahoma) and Redman, Charles L. (Arizona State University)
Ten Millennia, Twenty Years Later
Since the first Southwest Symposium two decades ago, the pace of change in southwestern archaeology has been variable, often mirroring the changes in North American archaeology. While some topic and theoretical approaches have been added since 1988, there has been a glacial pace in the types of research, and some areas of research continue to be neglected. Not wanting to dwell solely on archaeology's past, we offer suggestions for the future, focusing on the value of southwestern archaeology for dealing with major issues facing humanity.

Ortman, Scott G. (Crow Canyon Archaeological Center) and Cameron, Catherine M. (University of Colorado, Boulder)
A Framework for Controlled Comparisons of Ancient Migrations in the Southwest
This introductory paper sets out an agenda for exploring movement in the Southwest. We have asked pairs of participants to use cross-cultural comparison to examine well-known cases of population movement and ethnogenesis. This paper first considers the modern definition of migration and then explores three topics that are important to developing a framework for controlled comparisons: the causes of movement, the forms of movement, and the social consequences of movement in destination areas. The result is a matrix of social dimensions of movement that can be used in developing general movement theory from ancient Southwestern cases.

Reid, J. Jefferson (University of Arizona)
Remembering Archaeology's Past: Perspectives on People and Process
Historical narratives have proliferated in number and in kind since the evening session on select topics in the history of southwestern archaeology at the first Southwest Symposium. Today there exists an abundance of books, festschrifts, articles, interests groups, and symposia at regional and national meetings. And the "baby boomers" have yet to reach retirement age! This phenomenon of exuberant disciplinary self reflection is discussed in terms of origins, narrative genres, and future prospects.

Sandor, Jon (Iowa State University) and Homburg, Jeffrey (Statistical Research, Inc.)
Soil and Landscape Responses to American Indian Agriculture in the Southwest
Soil studies of prehistoric to contemporary American Indian agriculture across the Southwest indicate varied, dynamic responses to land use. Soil change is inferred from comparisons of agricultural fields to reference uncultivated areas (space-for-time substitution). Soil response pathways vary by initial ecosystem conditions, diverse agricultural methods, and environmental sensitivity to alteration (varying resistance and resilience). Terrain change detection is complicated by post-farming geoecological processes and land use. Soil change ranges from degradation (e.g., organic matter/nutrient decline, compaction, salt/sodium accumulation), to minimal net change, to enhanced soil quality. Ancient agricultural soils provide long-term perspectives on human-environmental relationships and land use sustainability.

Schachner, Greg (UCLA)
Ritual Places and Landscapes: Connecting Southwest People and Societies across Time and Space
Ceremonial places used by Pueblo people are often associated with spectacular and unusual features of the natural landscape. These places have been visited for ceremonies and resource collecting for centuries with patterns of use often originating in the ancient past. In this paper, I juxtapose ancient settlement patterns with ethnographically documented landscapes and places in order to highlight the role of natural features in networks of population circulation. Although difficult to track in the material record, travels to these places would have created connections between ancestral Pueblo groups and facilitated the movement of information and practices across time and space.

Spielmann, Katherine (Arizona State University), Briggs, John (Arizona State University), Hall, Sharon (Arizona State University), Kruse, Melissa (Arizona State University), Schaafsma, Hoski (Arizona State University)
Legacies on the Landscape: The Enduring Effects of Long-Term Human-Ecosystem Interactions
The Legacies project is an on-going collaboration among archaeology and ecology faculty, graduate, and undergraduate students at Arizona State University. Together we are investigating the long-term legacies of a relatively restricted period of dry farming from the late 1200s to the late 1300s on the semiarid landscape of Perry Mesa, Agua Fria National Monument. Archaeological survey and mapping have documented a subtly but extensively modified agricultural landscape on the mesa. In this paper we discuss the anthropogenic legacies of farming in the soil properties and herbaceous vegetation on and off agricultural fields.

Van Dyke, Ruth (Colorado College)
Anchoring Identity: Iconic Landforms across Chacoan Time and Space
Highly visible, distinctive landforms punctuate the horizons of the Ancestral Pueblo world. Landforms such as Shiprock were likely imbued with stories, memories, and meanings for Pueblo peoples. Over the course of at least four centuries, Chacoan ancestors and descendants migrated back and forth across a landscape that encompassed not only the southern San Juan Basin but also the Four Corners region north of the San Juan River. As Ancestral Puebloans traversed this region, iconic landforms and the familiar stories associated with them could have helped create a sense of stability, identity, and connection to place.

Vierra, Bradley J. (Statistical Research, Inc.)
Foraging Societies in an Arid Environment: Coping With Change in the American Southwest
The American Southwest is an environmentally diverse region that ranges from upland mountains and high mesas to lowland river valleys and desert plains. It should therefore not be surprising that this variability would also be represented among past foraging societies who had to cope with this ever changing landscape. Twenty years of hunter-gatherer research has only just begun to identify the nature of this diversity. This paper will focus on several principal research themes that are currently being studied by Southwestern archaeologists: the Paleoindian-Archaic transition, Archaic foraging technology, early agricultural society and forager-farmer relationships. Together these themes provide new insights into past foraging societies and possible avenues for future research.