AN EDUCATIONAL CRITICISM STUDY OF TEACHING SUBURBAN NINTH GRADERS: THE FACILITATOR
Dr. Mary Stokrocki
Professor of Art Education
Arizona State University, Tempe AZ Original version of this article published in 1991 in the Ohio Art Education Association Journal, 29 (1), 3-21. The article has been rewritten for instructional purposes.
Dedicated to Elliot Eisner (1991) who instituted Educational Criticism Methodology
PROBLEM & PURPOSE
Most art education articles on teaching present successful projects or stories about students and their characteristics; however, articles rarely give the teacher's viewpoints. This article aims to present a portrait of an effective art teacher--his views and instructional practices and his problems and how he copes with them. The instructor is characterized as a facilitator, who not only teaches art to ninth graders, but also to the school and community at large. Teaching then becomes a process of facilitating human, material, and temporal resources for one's own learning and the learning of others.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Research questions begin the most general to the specific or evolving ones. What is the content of a Fine Art I course for ninth graders? What forms of instruction are dominant? What is teaching preadolescents [experience] like? How do students react? What is the teaching style of ninth graders in a suburban context?
METHOD: EDUCATIONAL CRITICISM or MICROETHNOGRAPHIC DESCRIPTION
Methodology: Microethnographic Description is a study of a slice of everyday life. It literally means to draw (graph) a vivid picture of a people (ethnos). The method generates insights through description and interpretation of life's qualities as opposed to generalizing (statistics) about them. Each field of study has a slightly different twist to the method. Microethnography is an anthropological term. Other terms for this method are qualitative research (education), phenomenology (philosophy), case study (psychology), and ethnomethodology (social science). [Graduate students expand on this.]
Limitations: I limit my study to one art teacher, of one art class in one school. Malfunctioning photographic equipment occasionally hampered data gathering. My biases and the teacher's preferences further constrain the study. [If my procedure changes, I must report my changes and reasons, called evolving logic.]
Educational Criticism: is a research process of describing, analyzing, interpreting, and evaluating an everyday school activity in order to understand it more fully (Eisner, 1991). Originally based on art criticism, Eisner bases his ideas on Dewey's (1934/1980) expansion of perception, which is a process of sensory awareness and discrimination of details or qualities. Eisner questions the sources of a school's problems not only their symptoms.
The procedure consisted of three stages: 1) data collection & description of the context, participants, &unit/lesson, 2) content analysis, and 3) comparative analysis (Glaser & Strauss, 1967).
FIRST IMPRESSIONS AND DESCRIPTION OF CONTEXT
Display areas were promotional, instructional and decorative. MHS was a large (1300 students), fairly new school in a prosperous suburban area on Lake Erie in the Midwest. No major industry outside of the old steel mills was located here. On the first day, one student took me on a tour of the building and proudly showed the famous personages painted on the school walls in such areas as the "Art Hall of Fame" and "The Inventors Corridor." In this way, students became familiar with the historical figures and their names. In the lunchroom there was a long mural called "Faces of the 80's" that was painted by ninth graders. Faces included such popular heroes as Sylvester Stallone, Mickey Mouse, and Bruce Springstein. The entire student body selected these personalities through a survey. My guide proudly announced, "This [mural] is one of the special projects we do for our school. This year we are supposed to make stained-glass windows." Then she showed me a special showcase featuring the school winners in the county art show.
Mr. R felt that his facilities and instructional resources were more than adequate. His art room was large and colorful. Famous artistic figures were painted on the walls, such as Picasso, Warhol's Marilyn, Rembrandt, and Mona Lisa (see Figure 1). A large color wheel was painted on the ceiling; 3-D cardboard brushes, crayons, and pencils were hanging from it. In one corner of the room was an amusing assemblage of a toilet accompanied with readings for reflection and a bathtub full of old magazines. The students' current artworks were displayed on several bulletin boards, which extended out into the two showcases in the building. . He encouraged students to use his books as references, such as Architectural Digest, National Geographic, and Encyclopedia Britannica. Plaques on the wall proudly revealed the many art awards his students had won for their work in regional and state exhibits.
DESCRIPTION OF PARTICIPANTS
Description of the teacher. Mr. R has a master's degree in art education. He has been teaching preadolescents for 14 years in a predominantly white, suburban, middle-upper income community in the Mid-west. One of his 40-minute ninth grade classes was observed once a week for 12 weeks. Mr. R felt that early influences contributed to his success as a teacher. He explained, "I believe that teaching is a marvelous legacy. Because I experienced concern, understanding, and love from my teachers, I feel that it is my duty to pass those concerns on to future generations."
He was president of his regional art education association and recognized by his principal, art supervisor, fellow teachers, students, and the regional art education association as an outstanding teacher. His principal commented, "He's the best art teacher I ever had. The kids love him." On an introductory questionnaire (TABLE 1), I discovered that all of this students (100%) found him clear and funny, prepared and knowledgeable, sincere and helpful. Only one student remarked that he had a nasty temper. Students loved the classroom atmosphere and described it as free, colorful, terrific, friendly, warm, close, and pleasant.
Mr. R's philosophy was consistent with his school system's and his state's emphasis on a balanced art curriculum. Mr. R wrote the following goals in his curriculum: 1) To enable students to develop their powers of visual communication and their abilities to respond to works of art, 2) to understand how artists express themselves and how art critics and art historians respond to art, and 3) to become aware of the ways that society expresses different values and responds to art.
Mr. R believed that as a teacher he was a resource person who provided information on technique, vocabulary, and art history; and as a challenge he encouraged students to experiment on their own. He further felt that every student needed to be motivated, supported, and guided toward independence. He wanted his students to discover on their own after he set up the problem. Description of students, preferences and conceptions. Of the 20 students in this observed ninth grade class, nine were girls and eleven were boys, but none were of a minority race. Results on the same questionnaire indicated that students primarily regarded as creativity (65%) and expression (45%). Their preferred projects were watercolor painting (45%), especially of the abstract kind (20%), and drawing (35%) from photos, pencil shading, and portraits. Eleven students (55%) mentioned that they drew such things as cartoon, people, doodles, and landscapes at home for fun. In contrast, fifty percent of the students disliked drawing portraits because "they were not good at it" or "It was difficult to draw realistically." Seven (35%) students found tempera painting difficult because "It was sloppy," and "hard to paint details." Each student had a different favorite artist based on learning about them last year and artist preferences from interrelated arts--music and film.
TABLE 1 FIRST INTERVIEW
NINTH GRADERS' REACTIONS TO ART, LEARNING CLIMATE, AND COURSE CONTENT
NUMBER TOTAL PERCENTAGE
1. How is the learning climate? How is this school excellent? [See learning climate questions on www.ResearchandService.com].
Everyone gets along and care about each other.
Teachers are helpful and consider different viewpoints
Students take responsibility for learning?
Other
2. How is the classroom atmosphere?
3. How were class facilities?
CONCEPTION OF ART 4. What is Drawing? Use the art form under study. Explain your answers.
Drawing is a collection of marks, made with some tool, on a surface.
10
20
100
Drawing is a picture of something real or abstract
REACTIONS TO CONTENT 5. What is your favorite art project? Why?
6. What art work do you do at home? With your friends? Why?
7. What is your least favorite art project? Why?
8. Who is your favorite artist? Why?
Mr. R., he is a good drawer 10
Picasso, we learned about him last year 10
Dali, we is strange looking and draws weird 10
Three Stooges, they are comic artists 10
Geddy Lee is a cool rock artist 10
My father draws Spiderman 10
DESCRIPTION OF UNIT/ LESSON
Drawing (ART FORM) dominated Mr. R's art course. In the junior high course of study, ninth graders had two options to elect: fine art or applied art (crafts). His ninth grade, Fine Art I course of study this year consisted of various 2-D projects, history, criticism, career awareness, and suggested lessons, such as design, drawing, tempera realistic painting, abstract experimental watercolor, paper making, and lettering. Drawing ART FORM predominated and consisted of such CONCEPTS as anatomy, rendering, contour, illustration, and value. The drawing media included a variety of dry MEDIA--pencil, pen and ink and TECHNIQUES--cross-hatching and stippling), charcoal, and pastel. Students were expected to draw other than a frontal view and to analyze their own work as well as the work of others. Art history was covered in depth in the seventh and eighth grades. At the ninth grade level, Mr. R reserved it for the last week and included a visit to the art museum. Students were required to keep a sketchbook, which he graded on Fridays.
The nine-week drawing unit concentrated on portrait drawing (ART FORM) and abstraction (CONCEPT-STYLE) done in pen and ink (MEDIUM). At the beginning of the lesson, he gave his students a handout with instructions, "Choose three photographic portraits, either black and white or color, of celebrities or normal people" (SUBJECT MATTER). Then he explained the procedures:
Mr. R used Picasso's [ARTIST] portraits as motivation, stressing shading in his painting, The Old Guitarist [MASTERPIECE], and different points of view in Portrait of Dora Mar [MASTERPIECE]. Picasso would use side and front view in one portrait Mr. R revealed that he had not done project in 10 years, "I was tired of the same old stuff and found that this project fits all the objectives of our new curriculum." This lesson was both skill-oriented and conceptual with emphasis on shading, abstraction, and grid composition.
ARE 496 Students REVISE THE LESSON. See directions for this assignment. You do not have to include the information below.
CONTENT ANALYSIS OF INSTRUCTION
His studio substantive instruction was infrequent, comprehensive, multi-dimensional, and started with step-by-step procedures. This substantive instruction, the formal introduction of new art content, was infrequent (22%) and focused mostly on studio work (see Table 2). In fact, during a nine-week period, students worked on only one project of illustrating celebrities.
During the next week, Mr. R remotivated the lesson by announcing, "You can change the scale of these portrait sections. You can flip, crop, and enlarge them. You are making a more interesting image based on the portraits that you have already done" (2/18/88). Here he tried to show students how an artist created a new image.
Later in the term, he had students try contour drawing. On one occasion, he posed as the model (20 minutes), encouraging them to focus on hair texture (2/27/88). "Don't just scribble. Get closer, and include the trunk and some background," he instructed. Anatomy was also covered as a homework assignment in which students drew a skeleton on acetate, overlapped it with another acetate drawing of muscles, and added a drawing of a sports figure on top.
When I asked Mr. R about the sequence of his projects, he admitted: "I have lousy sequencing at the ninth grade level. The seventh grade sequence is better. I use the art elements and principles as a focal point. Now that we have a new curriculum, I have to figure it [the ninth grade new sequence] out." Later in the term, he further acknowledged, "These [drawings] projects take so long, I wonder if they are worth it."
Mr. R frequently used in-process appraisal instruction (38%), the informal monitoring and guiding of student process and product (Sevigny, 1978). At the beginning of the illustration project, some students had trouble finding stimulating ideas (2/3/88). Mr. R sat down with one girl and questioned her interests, "What about a famous scientist like Einstein?" as he flipped through the World Book Encyclopedia with her. "No, I'm not nuts about science," she replied. Then Mr. R suggested, "How about the face of Salvador Dali? It's real strange." Another student really wanted to use a skier, but couldn't find a picture of famous examples. Mr. R responded to his dilemma. "I have no trouble with your drawing a generic skier. Use him for one of your views and include other ski paraphernalia." A third student asked how to make hair shine. Mr. R used this occasion to demonstrate to the group how to shave a graphic stick with a razor, then to blend the dust to make curls and wisps of hair (2/3/88).
Later, one of the boys asked for help, "The face is too long and the hair is not dark enough." Mr. R corrected, "Blend the shades in the hair more [as he demonstrated on the student's work]" [see Figure 3.] Then Mr. R further inquired, "What have you learned from this? What are you going to do next time?" The student answered, "Find a photo that has more darks and lights." Mr. R then added, "Look for references that have more detail and focus." Finally, Mr. R helped one girl with her portrait of Madonna. He instructed, "The face is not bad, although the eyes are a little small. Get darker--real black [as he shaded her work]. The top eyeliner is just as dark as the bottom. Try tiny circles to shade." He felt that the students' toughest problem was contrast, due to their timidity to make things darker.
Mr. R. used managerial instruction, the control of student behavior and classroom functioning, the least (15%). The beginning of the period usually consisted of announcements, such as details and deadlines (5 minutes, 4/27/88). Cleanup was never a problem because students knew the class rules and procedures. Occasionally, Mr. R would forcefully announce, "It's getting loud in here! Or he would command, "If you are hoarding your favorite brushes, cough them up." Because of his fantastic sense of humor, students respected him. He loved to tease his students, "Are you guys part of the elite who carry their markers around in an attaché case?" On one occasion, he asked his students if they had a picture of a teddy bear, so he could design a wedding card. When one girl gave him a picture of an American Greetings Care Bear, he exclaimed "Oh how cute!" The girl responded, "Am I getting extra credit for this?" He teased, "I'll remember you in my will."
Nonfunctional instruction (25%) consisted of career awareness that involved students in Mr. R's promotional activities, organized field trips. He also shared his personal interests with his class that he ran as an art club. On one occasion, he showed his class the promotional video they made of the Saturday art exhibit and balloon launch, commemorating Youth Art Month. The kindergartners' art was featured as "Art-work from the Class of 2000." Mr. R began his class by thanking his ninth graders for helping him raise money for shuttle buses and sponsoring the event (see Figure 8). During the ceremony in the gym, one of the ninth grade girls announced the celebration of Michelangelo's birthday, "He painted a ceiling that was twice as big as this gym's and it took four years. In those day he had a patron -- the Medici family, and we now will honor our famous sponsor with this award." In the video, the children were singing happy birthday to Michelangelo and the balloons went off (15 minutes). One of his ninth graders reflected, "It was a good experience for us. We tied balloons and put up the paintings. We even silk-screened shirts for the kids -- Class of 2000. They are lucky!" [Over 300 children participated in this program, which included Mr. R's little girls.]
During class, Mr. R also involved students in hand lettering signs and awards that the principal and other teachers requested (10 minutes 3/14/88). In addition, an entire week was spent mounting the spring art exhibit, and students spent class time selecting and framing their best work. Furthermore, he shared some of his personal interests with students. On one occasion (3/7/88), he discussed the latest book that he was reading, entitled Communion (Strieber, 1987). He related the supposedly true story of how the author was visited by aliens and was studied quite intensively by them. Mr. R was so excited about the book that he rambled on for 10 minutes, discussing the possibilities of alien life with his students, who were equally anxious to prolong the talk. One student added, "You should hear some of the stories he tells us."
Students also spent an enjoyable afternoon at the local beach making sand sculptures (6/2/88). On this occasion, Mr. R led the group in play and encouraged them to model the creatures that they designed on paper into giant forms. He instigated and teasingly reprimanded a group of boys to exaggerate their sand mermaid's bodily parts. The boys never finished the mermaid's head. Influenced via competition, the students cooperated in teams and then planned ways of adjusting their opponent's creations. The event ended in an award ceremony and feast. Even the mermaid was recognized with the "most voluptuous" award.
TABLE 2
A TIME SAMPLING OF R'S INSTRUCTION OF NINTH GRADERS
*Gaps in dates indicate no classes on Wednesdays due to snow days, vacation, and preparation for art shows.
ARE 496 Students continue with the Following sections CONCLUSIONS: PART I
The findings derived from the views of this art teacher and his students may contribute much to the understanding of teaching preadolescents, especially ninth graders in an affluent setting.
[Notice that conclusions are written in present tense and use interpretive words, such as seem, may, tend to, probably, possibly, etc. These are natural generalizations, pertaining to this teacher and students only, not all secondary students. Do not use personal names or pronouns here.]
What is the content of a Fine Art I course for ninth graders? Even though teachers of preadolescents may claim to have a balanced art curriculum, they tend to use studio-oriented lessons and to teach their art specialty as well (in this case-drawing), probably because they are involved in promotional or extracurricular activities for the school. Art history experiences, however, need to be included within the lesson as motivation and art criticism and aesthetic components as well. What forms of instruction seem to be dominant? Teachers of preadolescents tend to use substantive studio instruction, the introduction of new content, infrequently. The teacher tends to introduce new content comprehensively and multi-dimensionally at the beginning of the unit. Substantive teaching seems discovery-oriented and augmented by a great variety of instructional aids. Such concentration on drawing seems harmonious with ninth graders' concern for mastering realism, as seen in responses to their own drawings. However, the teacher probably uses informal, in-process appraisal as an instructional form quite often, as a way of helping individual problem solving.
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS
What is the teaching style? Comparison with related studies in the literature revealed the importance of nonfunctional teaching, a process of mobilizing students to teach others, to work in teams, and to take pride in their school. Teachers of ninth graders seem to instruct through anti-structural behaviors: jovial cooperation, hard work, anecdotes, puns, and sarcasm. In so doing, the teacher models an artistic life style, a way of coping with reality, and a proper way to get along with others for students to emulate. As a shaman (Alexander, 1983) the teacher inspires students' good spirits and imagination via camaraderie and play, as epitomized in my study during the ritualistic sculptural trip to the beach. Wilson (1977) similarly describes the instigation of extra structural learning events in her high school drawing class and the educational importance of the outcomes: creative art forms, witticisms, and an intense sense of community. In this context, the social character of art teaching is as important as the intellectual and political ones. Teaching then becomes a process of facilitating human, material, temporal, and social resources for one's own learning and the learning of others, including the school and community at large (Michael, 1983).
PART II
APPRAISAL or EVALUATION DEVICES
Mr. R tested his students' knowledge each term. For example, he gave a worksheet on career awareness to students after reading the chapter "Why Artists Create" in Brommer and Horn's Art in Your World (1985). The test consisted of fill-in-the blanks and matching questions. He also had them help judge student entries for art shows by voting for the best and giving reasons.
Mr. R graded his students' work on quantity, quality, and on the results of their tests. Mr. R graded his students' work on quantity, quality, and on the results of their tests. Therefore, his procedures were quite formal. At the end of the nine week illustration unit students were still not finished, so he graded them on the amount of work accomplished to that point, the end of the marking period, and on the quality of it -- mostly on their success with shading. Later, grades were adjusted, when students finished their work at home. He basically used a point system, so those projects that were more time consuming were worth more points. He then explained, "If the project is worth 50 points and the student has never done the technique involved -- 30 points are given idea, 15 points for technique, and 5 points for presentation." His semester exams consisted of matching, fill-in-the-blanks, and identification questions. Evaluation procedures tend to be traditional and formal, based on letter grades, a point system, and semester exams.
Therefore, his procedures were quite formal. At the end of the nine week illustration unit students were still not finished, so he graded them on the amount of work accomplished to that point, the end of the marking period, and on the quality of it -- mostly on their success with shading. Later, grades were adjusted, when students finished their work at home. He basically used a point system, so that projects that were more time consuming were worth more points. He then explained, "If the project is worth 50 points and the student has never done the technique involved -- 30 points are given idea, 15 points for technique, and 5 points for presentation." His semester exams consisted of matching, fill-in-the-blanks, and identification questions. Evaluation procedures tend to be traditional and formal, based on letter grades, a point system, and semester exams.
STUDENTS' REACTIONS TO THEIR ART WORK AND COURSE
Throughout the course, students were concerned that their artworks look realistic. Students analyzed their own work and the work of others throughout the course, as Mr. R informally encouraged. For example, one girl asked a neighboring boy for help, "I don't think it [my drawing] looks like Madonna. The nose is too long." He responded while shading her work, "You didn't spend enough time on the her nose. The nose is the hardest, because there are no lines, you have to shade it" (Figure 4). Art Criticism. On a post-questionnaire, students were asked to describe, analyze, interpret, and judge their work. Half the class (50%) chose to illustrate rock stars. Students shared their subject matter interests. "I have an entire collection of the Three Stooges," remarked one student, as he shaded Groucho's face (see Figure 5). Another student interpreted his image of Geddy Lee from the rock group Rush, "He is so ugly [had a big nose], but I like him anyway." A third student combined portraits of Picasso and Dali, and she commented, "I love his face [Dali]. It's so cool" (see Figure 6).
Students remembered that they were using a grid [composition] of different sizes. When I asked why, they didn't know. The instructor forgot to tell them that a variety of size frames creates more interest. A fourth student judged the project in general and stated, "I like it better than most projects because I can't paint. I like copying from pictures, not [drawing] from my [memory]." Students were clearly anxious about realistic proportions and portrayal, attracted to expressive characteristics, and preferred copying from 2-D references.
Most of the students considered themselves successful: Ten students graded themselves as a "B," three gave themselves "A's," four selected "C's," and three did not finish. When students were asked on the questionnaire how they would improve their work, the most common replies were: " Work more on the shading," "Do it over," "I like the drawing, not the inking," "Do bigger shapes," "Concentrate and take my time," "Improve the dots [stippling]." They were also able to technically analyze their line technique. Thirty percent mentioned successful use of crosshatch, 30% used stippling, while one student combined both (see Figure 7). Students indicated on informal interviews [basead on questionnaries] that they enjoyed the class independence and the social atmosphere. Students (25%) preferred freedom, the variety of projects (30%), listening to the radio, drawing what they liked, and getting to know people (TABLE 3). Twenty percent of the students had no criticisms of the course, and 15% did not want their work compared with others. Then I asked for recommendations. Four students (20%) mentioned more time, and 20% had nothing to recommend. I also asked them what they learned new. Three students mentioned value, shading better, and how to do things in different ways. Other individual responses included, "Take time on my work," "How to give criticism nicely and how to receive it," and "That art comes from the inside." When I asked them who was the best artist in the class 15% answered "everyone." Thirty percent specifically mentioned Sam. One student indicated, "He's funny and good at drawing."
Students seem to be in the "stage of dawning realism" (Lowenfeld & Brittain, 1987.) and still love to draw but are upset if their results are not perfect--a copy of the nostalgic photograph they want to capture. Concerns were mostly technical as well. Results from students' pre and post questionnaires indicate that preadolescents may highly regard a teacher's helpfulness and knowledge of art, but definitely the teacher's personality is important to them. Students also seem to enjoy freedom of choice, class camaraderie, promotional activities, and the extra-structural learning that occurs outside of the class routine or out of school. Even their positive class behavior and cooperation may testify to a spirit of community.
TABLE 3
POST INTERVIEW
NINTH GRADERS' EVALUATION OF COURSE
Freedom
5
25
Variety of experiences
6
30
Other _________________
2. What do you like least about the course?
No complaints
4
Being compared with others
3
15
Other____________________
3. What recommendations do you have?
None
More time and more practice
Do oil painting
Choose my own project
2
EXPLANATION OF METAPHOR
What is the teaching in a affluent suburban area [experience] like? Career awareness seems to be a major goal for ninth graders and a teacher may run a secondary class as an art club. He/she frequently involves students in art advocacy, especially in promoting Youth Art Month, judging art competitions, arranging art shows, coordinating special events, and painting school murals. Whereas financial, physical, and attitudinal problems may not be dominant in an affluent community and administrative and community support is positive, pressure for results is inherent. The community expects high visibility from art teachers. In addition, a frequent exchange of favors exists. Extra time will be spent on lettering signs for the principal and other teachers. An art teacher's greatest asset s may be vivacious energy, rapport with students, and promotional activities. All of which earn the title of "facilitator."
The political demands of the job often obstruct a teacher's ability to plan effectively, and the sequencing of lessons suffers. Although a teacher may schedule a few art appreciation videos and a museum field trip at the end of the year, art appreciation and criticism activities are often short-changed at this level. Because of a strong seventh grade curriculum, students may be able to make connections; however, this is often not the case. In evaluating his/her own teaching, a teacher may vow to integrate art appreciation more the following year, while negotiating for a free period for promotional work.
REFERENCES
Alexander, R. (1983). The teacher as shaman: An education criticism. Studies in Art Education, 25 (1), 48-57. Barker, R. (1986). Ecological, psychology: conceptual methods for studying the environment. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Brommer, G., & Horn, G. (1985). Art in your world. Worcester: MA: Davis. Glaser, B., & Strauss, A. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory. Chicago: Aldine. Dewey, J. (1934/1980). Art as experience. New York: Pedigree. Eisner, E. (1991). Enlightened eye: Qualitative inquiry and the enhancement of educational practice. New York: Macmillan.
Lowenfeld, Viktor, & Brittain, W. Lambert. (1987). Creative and mental growth (8th and last edition). NY: Macmillan.
Michael, J. (1983). Art and adolescence: Teaching art at the secondary level. New York: Teachers College Press.
Sevigny, M. (1978). A descriptive study of instructional interaction and performance appraisal in a university studio art setting: A multiple perspective. (Doctoral dissertation, Ohio State University, 1977). Dissertation Abstracts International, 38, 6477-A. (University Microfilms No. 7806099). Strieber, W. (1973). Communion: A true story. New York: Avon. Wilson, M. (1977). Passage through communitas: An interpretive analysis of enculturation (Doctoral dissertation, Pennsylvania State University, 1977). Dissertation Abstracts International, 38 (5). 2496-A. (University Microfilm #77-23, 291).
5/18/02
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