ETHNIC RELATIONS IN THE U.S.:
A Sociohistorical Cultural Systems Approach
List of Maps ..... vii
List of Figures ..... vii
Preface ..... ix
Chapter Contents ..... xv
PART I: AN INTRODUCTION TO ETHNIC RELATIONS
CHAPTER 1 - WHY STUDY ETHNIC RELATIONS? ..... 1
Understanding Historical and Contemporary Interethnic Relations ..... 2
Demographics and Future Population Dynamics ..... 3
Domestic and International Interdependence ..... 4
Interethnic Relations and Conflict ..... 6
Advantages of Cross-Cultural Perspectives ..... 8
CHAPTER 2 - WHY MULTIETHNIC AMERICA? AN HISTORICAL OVERVIEW ..... 9
Native Americans: Origins, Diversity and Survival ..... 11
European Americans: Colonial Foundations and Immigration ..... 12
African Americans: Foundations in Slavery ..... 13
Hispanic Americans: The Southwest and Beyond ..... 14
Asian Americans: Labor Immigration and the Spoils of Imperialism ..... 15
The 1960s Ethnic Revival of America ..... 16
Cultural Diversity and Political Correctness: Ideology or Education? ..... 18
CHAPTER 3 - MULTICULTURAL AND CROSS-CULTURAL ISSUES IN THE CONTEMPORARY U.S. ..... 19
Cross-Cultural Issues in Education ..... 20
Bilingual Education ..... 20
Multicultural Education ..... 21
Multicultural History: Misdirection or Correction? ..... 23
University Programs and Multiculturalism ..... 24
Cultural Factors in Business ..... 25
Multicultural Management: Managing Diversity ..... 26
Cross-Cultural Perspectives in Administration ..... 28
Organizational and Corporate Culture ..... 29
International and Cross-Cultural Issues in U.S. Business ..... 31
Cross-Cultural Issues in Psychology ..... 32
Cross-Cultural Issues in Counseling and Psychotherapy ..... 33
Therapy as a Culture Bound Practice ..... 33
Barriers to and Adaptations for Cross-Cultural Therapy ..... 35
The Cross-Cultural Challenge to Social Psychology ..... 36
Cross-Cultural Issues in Health and Social Services ..... 37
Cross-Cultural Issues in Medicine ..... 38
Cultural Dimensions in Social Work ..... 40
Cross-Cultural Sensitivity in Social Work ..... 41
Cross-Cultural Issues in Politics and Social Life ..... 42
Affirmative Action or Affirmative Discrimination? ..... 44
The Cultural Defense in Criminal Law ..... 45
Traditional Legal Bases for the Cultural Defense ..... 46
CHAPTER 4: DEVELOPING CROSS-CULTURAL PERSPECTIVES AND COMPETENCE ..... 53
Cross-Cultural Learning and Training ..... 54
General and Specific Cross-Cultural Orientations ..... 54
Methods of Cross-Cultural Training ..... 55
Anthropological Perspectives as Intercultural Tools ..... 57
Strategies for Effective Cross-Cultural Relations ..... 58
Attitudes Toward Change ..... 58
Developing Cultural Self-Awareness ..... 58
Culture Shock Adaptation ..... 58
Stress Management ..... 59
Managing Cross-Cultural Conflict ..... 59
Managing Attribution and Projection ..... 59
Cross-Cultural Problem Solving ..... 59
Overcoming Resistance ..... 59
Managing Emotional Reactions ..... 60
Establishing Cross-Cultural Personal and Social Relations ..... 60
Intercultural Effectiveness Skills ..... 60
Developing a Multicultural Self ..... 60
Understanding Social Interaction Rules ..... 61
Social Interaction Rules ..... 61
Values Orientation ..... 61
Kluckhohn's Basic Value Orientations ..... 61
Self-Assessment Exercises ..... 65
Values Assessment Exercise I ..... 65
Values Assessment Exercise II ..... 67
Cross-Cultural Interviews ..... 68
PART II: THE DYNAMICS OF INTERGROUP RELATIONS
CHAPTER 5 - CULTURE, RACE AND ETHNICITY ..... 71
The Concept of Culture ..... 72
Culture and Biology ..... 73
The Concept of Race ..... 74
Race in Historical Perspective ..... 74
The Modern Concepts of Race ..... 77
Skin Color and Racial Distinctions ..... 79
An Alternative to Race: The Cline ..... 80
Racism and Ideology ..... 80
Ethnicity ..... 82
Race versus Ethnicity versus Culture ..... 83
American Ethnicity ..... 84
Ethnic Categories and Labels ..... 85
Assessment of Culture and Ethnicity ..... 88
CHAPTER 6 - CULTURE AND HUMAN BEHAVIOR ..... 91
Characteristics of Culture ..... 92
Cultures and Subcultures ..... 92
Societies and Cultures ..... 93
The Historical Concept of Culture ..... 94
The Modern Culture Concept: Cultural Relativism ..... 95
Aspects of Culture ..... 96
Cultural Acquisition ..... 96
Culture, Perception and Cognition ..... 96
Behavioral Determination ..... 97
Culture and Sex Roles ..... 98
Cultural Adaptation and Integration ..... 99
Intracultural Variation ..... 100
The Cultural System ..... 100
The Pyramid of Culture ..... 101
General Systems Theory and Cultural Systems ..... 102
The Dialectic of Structure-Function and Conflict-Opposition ..... 102
Culture and Society as Open Systems ..... 104
CHAPTER 7 - CULTURAL SYSTEMS AND PSYCHOCULTURAL MODELS ..... 107
Infrastructure: The Technoeconomic System ..... 108
Ecology and Demography: The Population-Environment Interface ..... 108
Technology and Subsistence ..... 109
Economic Systems and Society ..... 111
Organization of Labor and Production ..... 111
Social Organization and Structure: Domestic and Political ..... 114
Social Organization and Behavior ..... 114
Family and Kinship ..... 115
Social Stratification ..... 117
Political Organization ..... 118
Levels of Political Organization ..... 119
Superstructure: Ideology, World View and Identity ..... 121
Language and Communication ..... 122
Socialization and Education ..... 122
Cultural Values ..... 123
Religion and Cosmology ..... 123
Expressive Culture ..... 124
Ethnicity and Group Psychology ..... 124
Culture and Psychology ..... 125
Culture and Personality ..... 127
Assessing Personality ..... 127
Personality and Social Self ..... 128
Social Roles and Cultural Psychology ..... 129
Socialization ..... 131
Indigenous Psychologies ..... 133
Psychocultural Model ..... 134
CHAPTER 8 - PROCESSES AND DYNAMICS OF INTERGROUP RELATIONS
Cross-Cultural Contact and Conflict ..... 143
Ingroup Versus Outgroup Dynamics ..... 144
Ethnocentrism ..... 145
The Ethnocentric Syndrome ..... 147
Attribution and Interpretation ..... 148
Types of Casual Attributions ..... 149
Cultural Attribution ..... 150
Stereotyping ..... 151
Stereotyping and Cultural Characteristics ..... 152
Psychodynamic Process in Intercultural Relations ..... 152
Cultural Shock ..... 154
Causes of Cultural Shock ..... 155
Phases/Stages of Cultural Shock ..... 156
Structural Dynamics: Integration and Segregation ..... 157
Integration ..... 157
Segregation ..... 158
CHAPTER 9: PREJUDICES AND DISCRIMINATION ..... 161
The Classic View of Prejudice and Discrimination ..... 162
Prejudice and Discrimination as Universals ..... 162
Prejudice ..... 164
The Authoritarian Personality ..... 165
Social Distance ..... 165
Targets of Prejudice ..... 166
Discrimination ..... 168
Forms of Discrimination ..... 169
Institutional Discrimination ..... 170
Explanations of Prejudice and Discrimination ..... 172
Normative Perspectives ..... 172
Social Causes ..... 173
Psychological Causes ..... 176
Consequences of Prejudice and Discrimination ..... 177
Individual Responses to Prejudice and Discrimination ..... 177
The Culture of Poverty and the Structure of Poverty ..... 178
The Social Cost of Discrimination ..... 179
Factors Reducing Prejudice and Discrimination ..... 180
CHAPTER 10: INTERCULTURAL CONTACT: GROUP ADAPTATIONS ..... 185
Integration and Segregation: The Dynamics of Intercultural Accommodation ..... 186
Acculturation ..... 187
Amalgamation ..... 187
Assimilation and Melting Pot ..... 189
Creation of Intercultural Contact Situations ..... 192
Group Reactions to Subordinate Status ..... 192
Group Level Dynamics in Intercultural Contact ..... 193
Centrifugal Forms of Intergroup Relations ..... 194
Centripetal Forms of Intergroup Relations: Assimilation ..... 196
Theories of Assimilation ..... 198
Cultural Pluralism ..... 199
CHAPTER 11: INTERCULTURAL CONTACT: INDIVIDUAL ADAPTATIONS ..... 203
Individual Outcomes from Intercultural Contact ..... 204
Psychosocial Dimensions of Cultural Change ..... 207
Minority Adaptation to Intercultural Relations ..... 208
Ethnic Identity and Self Esteem ..... 210
Stages of Ethnicity and Types of Ethnic Identity ..... 211
Dominant Groups' Development of Ethnic Awareness ..... 212
Hoopes Intercultural Learning Cycle ..... 213
PART III: U.S. INTERETHNIC RELATIONS: THE FORMATIVE PERIOD
CHAPTER 12: AMERICA BEFORE COLUMBUS: PREHISTORIC NATIVE AMERICANS ..... 217
Native American Cultural Development ..... 218
Paleo-Indians and Big Game Hunters ..... 219
Archaic Traditions ..... 221
The Transition of Cultivation ..... 222
Culture Areas of North America ..... 224
Arctic ..... 226
Subartic ..... 227
Plateau ..... 229
Northwest Coast ..... 230
California ..... 231
Great Basin ..... 233
Southwest ..... 234
Plains ..... 236
Eastern Areas ..... 238
Northeast ..... 238
Southeast ..... 239
Prehistoric Native American Cultural Patterns ..... 241
Infrastructure: Subsistence and Technoeconomic Systems ..... 241
Family and Kinship Organization ..... 243
Social and Political Organization ..... 244
Superstructure: Socialization and Beliefs ..... 246
CHAPTER 13: EUROPEAN COLONIZATION OF AMERICA ..... 251
Historical Background to European New World Colonization ..... 252
Historical Development of International Business ..... 254
European Colonization ..... 256
English Colonial Development: The Charter Colonies ..... 258
The Colonial Cultural Systems ..... 260
Infrastructure: Land, Labor and Trade ..... 261
Social Organization: Family and Community ..... 264
Colonial Political Life: Assemblies and Crown ..... 267
Intergroup Relations: Anglo Saxon Dominance ..... 269
Ideology: The European Background in America ..... 270
CHAPTER 14: AFRICAN AMERICANS IN COLONIAL AMERICA ..... 277
Infrastructure: Plantation Slavery ..... 278
Subsistence and Economy: Slavery and the Plantation System ..... 280
Social Structure: The Organization of Slavery ...... 282
The Matrifocal Family ..... 282
Social Stratification: Slaves and Aristocracy ..... 284
Political and Social Control: The Slave Codes ..... 285
Intercultural Relations: The Dynamics of Miscegenation ..... 287
Superstructure: African American Culture ..... 288
Socialization and Education: Community and Plantation ..... 289
Religion in African American Culture ..... 291
Ethnicity and Group Psychology: Acquiescence and Resistance ..... 293
CHAPTER 15: HISPANIC AMERICA: THE NORTHERN FRONTIER ..... 297
Infrastructure: The Organization of Colonial Production ..... 298
Economics and Society: The Mercantile System ..... 299
Organization of Labor: Encomienda, Mission and Hacienda ..... 300
Social Structure: Conquistador and Crown ..... 304
The Mestizo Family ..... 304
Social Stratification: Spaniard, Mexican and Indian ..... 305
Political Organization: The Crown's Administrative System ..... 307
Intergroup Relations in the Northern Frontier ..... 309
Superstructure: Catholicism and the Conquistador ..... 311
The Church as Mission, Bank and State ..... 312
Mestizo Psychology ..... 314
CHAPTER 16: NATIVE AMERICANS AND MANIFEST DESTINY ..... 317
Infrastructure: Disease, Commerce and Colonization ..... 318
Demographics: Disease and Decimation ..... 318
Economic Transformation: Commerce and Colonization ..... 319
Social Organization: Domestic and Political Transformations ..... 321
Family and Social Organization ..... 321
Native American-European Politics ..... 322
Native American Resistance and Displacement ..... 324
Intergroup Relations and Adaptations ..... 326
Native American Case Studies ...... 327
The Powhatans ...... 327
The League of the Iroquois ..... 331
The Five Civilized Tribes and the "Trail of Tears" ..... 333
The Pueblo Indians ..... 335
The California Native Americans ...... 339
CHAPTER 17: FOUNDATIONS OF EUROPEAN AMERICA: SOCIAL RELATIONS AND IDEOLOGY IN THE NEW REPUBLIC ..... 345
Infrastructure: Expansion and the Market Revolution ..... 346
Subsistence and Economics: The Farmer and the Market ..... 348
Social and Political Organization ..... 349
Family and Sex Roles ..... 349
Social Stratification: Democracy in America ..... 350
The American Revolution: Its Origins and Consequences ..... 351
"Indian Relations" and Manifest Destiny ..... 353
Intergroup Relations: Migration, Assimilation and Anglo Dominance ..... 355
Superstructure: The Foundations of American Culture ..... 356
Religion: The Protestant Ethic ..... 357
Early American Psychology: Puritan Minds and Bodies ..... 358
The Evangelicals ..... 358
The Moderates ..... 361
The Genteel ..... 364
American Temperaments and the American Revolution ..... 366
The Mind in Control: Republican Puritanism ..... 367
CHAPTER 18: AFRICAN AMERICANS: THE STRUGGLE FOR EMANCIPATION ..... 371
Infrastructure: Plantation and City ..... 372
Demography: Population Growth and Displacement ..... 372
Technological Infrastructure: The Diversification of Slavery ..... 374
The Economics of Slavery: The Fruits and Spoils of Merchant Capital ..... 376
Social Organization: Family and Community Life ..... 378
The African American Family ..... 378
Social Organization: Mutual Aid and the Church ..... 379
Social Stratification: Negroes and Coloreds ..... 380
Political Organization: The Black Codes ..... 381
The Struggle Against Slavery: The Abolitionist Movement ..... 382
Intergroup Relations: Segregation ..... 385
Superstructure: The Development of African American Culture ..... 386
Socialization and Education ..... 387
Psychology and Identity: Sambo or Sly? ..... 388
Religion: The African American Church ..... 390
Expressive Culture: Newspapers and Spirituals ..... 391
CHAPTER 19: MEXICAN AMERICA: CONQUEST OF THE SOUTHWEST ..... 395
Infrastructure of the Northern Territories ..... 396
European American Settlements in Mexico ..... 396
The Mexican American War ..... 398
The Incorporation of Northern Mexico ..... 399
The Colonization of Texas ..... 399
New Mexico Land Seizures ..... 401
The Occupation of California ..... 403
The Technoeconomic Transformation: Agribusiness in the Southwest ..... 405
Infrastructure: The Southwest as an Internal Colony ..... 405
Social Organization: Domestic and Political Transformation ..... 407
Superstructure: The Persistence of Mexican Culture ..... 411
CHAPTER 20: THE CHINESE IN AMERICA: THE LABOR SOJOURNER ..... 415
Infrastructure: Immigrant Law ..... 416
Technoeconomic System: Wage Labor and Community Economics ..... 417
Economic Systems: Chinese Labor and American Industry ..... 419
Social Organization: Clan, Company and Tong ..... 412
Chinese Social Organization: The Chinese Six Companies ..... 422
Political Organization and Control: Six Companies and Secret Societies ..... 424
Intergroup Relations: Rejecting the Yellow Hordes ..... 426
Superstructure: Chinese Cultural Persistence in the U.S. ..... 427
CHAPTER 21: AFRICAN AMERICANS: EMANCIPATION AND THE INDUSTRIAL ORDER ..... 431
Infrastructure: Migration and Industrialization ..... 432
Demography: The Movement Northward ..... 432
Production: From Share Cropper to Laborer ..... 433
Economic Development: The Industrial Transformation ..... 435
Social Organization: The Development of African American Society ..... 437
Family and Community Networks ..... 437
Community Organization and Political Development ..... 438
Political Developments: From Slavery to Jim Crow Laws ..... 440
African American Leadership: Struggle, Accommodation and Resistance ..... 442
Intergroup Relations: Segregation as a Way of Life ..... 443
Superstructure: The Ideologies of African American Culture ..... 444
Socialization and Development ..... 444
The Schooling of African Americans ..... 445
Religion: The African American Church ..... 446
Expressive Culture ..... 447
CHAPTER 22: NATIVE AMERICANS: THE CLOSING FRONTIER AND THE RESERVATIONS ..... 449
The California Indians ..... 450
The Apprentice Labor System ..... 451
The Developing Reservations ..... 452
The Plains Indian Wars ..... 455
The Plains Cultures ..... 455
Total War on the Indians ..... 457
Infrastructure: Displacement and Confinement ..... 459
Demography: Invasion and the Reservation ..... 459
Subsistence and Economic Transformation: The Government Ration ..... 460
Social Structure: Domestic Disruption and Political Domination ..... 461
Family, Kinship and Community Organization ..... 461
The Political Domination of the Native Americans ..... 462
The Bureau of Indian Affairs and Congress ..... 463
Intergroup Relations ..... 465
Superstructure: Cultural Destruction, Adaptation and Survival ..... 467
Socialization and Education: Family and Boarding School ..... 467
Religious Adaptations: Resurgence and Repression ..... 468
Group Psychology: Despair and Survival ..... 469
CHAPTER 23: EUROPEAN IMMIGRATION: THE SECOND WAVE ..... 473
Major European Immigrations ..... 475
The Germans ..... 476
The Irish ..... 479
The Jews ..... 482
The Italians ..... 486
U.S. Macrosystem Dynamics ..... 488
The Industrial Revolution and Labor ..... 489
Community Social Organization ..... 490
Politics and the Immigrant ..... 491
Intergroup Relations: Acculturation, Assimilation and Ethnic Identity ..... 492
PART IV: ETHNIC RELATIONS IN THE 20TH CENTURY
CHAPTER 24: THE AMERICAN WAY OF LIFE: EUROPEAN AMERICAN CULTURE ..... 497
Historical Background: The Anglo Saxon Foundations ..... 498
Infrastructure: Immigration, Reproduction and Economic Transformation ..... 500
Demography: The End of Immigration and the New Immigrants ..... 500
Economic Production: The Industrial Revolution and Beyond ..... 501
Social Organization: Family and Political Life ..... 503
Family Organization and Dynamics ..... 503
Social Stratification and Mobility ..... 504
Politics in American Life ..... 505
Intergroup Relations: Assimilation and Cultural Pluralism ..... 506
Superstructure: The American Cultural Dialogue ..... 507
The Mainstream Referent Group ..... 508
Basic American Values ..... 508
Religion in American Life ..... 512
Ethnicity ..... 512
Social Interaction Rules ..... 514
CHAPTER 25: NATIVE AMERICANS IN THE 20TH CENTURY: SURVIVAL AND RESURGENCE ..... 521
Infrastructure: Reservation and Urban Life ..... 523
Demographics: Population Resurgence and the "Official Indians" ..... 524
The Technoeconomic System: Government Employment ..... 527
Social and Political Organization: Family and Tribe ..... 529
Family, Kin and "All My Relations" ..... 529
Native American Social Organization ..... 531
Native American Politics: Two Steps Forward, One Step Back ..... 532
Native Americans and Congressional Acts ..... 533
Intergroup Relations: Native American Political Resurgence ..... 538
Superstructure: Cultural Persistence and Spiritual Resurgence ..... 540
Socialization and Education: Boarding School to Tribal College ..... 540
Religion: The Persistence of Native American Spirituality ..... 542
Psychocultural Perspectives on Native Americans ..... 545
Native American Identity ..... 548
Social Interaction Rules ..... 550
CHAPTER 26: AFRICAN AMERICANS IN THE 20TH CENTURY: BEING BLACK IN WHITE AMERICA ..... 555
Infrastructure: The Urbanization of African Americans ..... 556
Demographic and Reproductive Trends ..... 556
Structural Segregation in the Economic System ..... 557
Causes of Economic Deprivation ..... 560
Social Organization: Family, Kinship, Church and Community ..... 562
African American Family Structures ..... 563
Kinship Networks ..... 566
African American Churches ..... 567
African American Segregation and Stratification ..... 568
African American Leadership and Political Struggle ..... 571
The Civil Rights Movement ..... 573
Intergroup Relations ..... 577
Superstructure: African American Psychocultural Dynamics ..... 578
Socialization ..... 579
African American Psychology ..... 582
Identity: Internal Variation and Acculturation ..... 584
Social Interaction Dynamics ..... 587
African American Language Patterns ..... 588
African American Relational Styles ..... 590
Intergroup Relations and Communication ..... 593
CHAPTER 27: HISPANIC AMERICANS: LA RAZA COSMICA ..... 597
Puerto Rico: Borinquen Bella ..... 599
Infrastructure: Colony and Migrant Workers ..... 599
Subsistence and Economy: From Colony to Labor Pool ..... 600
Social Organization: Family and Political Life ..... 601
Family Life ..... 602
Politics: Colony and Commonwealth ..... 603
Intergroup Relations: Neither Black nor White ..... 604
Superstructure: Puerto Rican Cultural Persistence in the U.S. ..... 605
Mexican Americans ..... 607
Infrastructure: Economic Transformation and the Labor Struggle ..... 607
Demography: Immigration and Dispersion ..... 608
Subsistence: From Farm to Factory and Service Economy ..... 610
Labor and Economic Organization ..... 611
Social Structure: Family, Community and Political Struggles ..... 613
La Familia ..... 613
Community Organization: Segregation and Stratification ..... 615
Political Background ..... 616
Hispanic Political Organizations ..... 617
Intergroup Relations: "Greasers Go Home!" ..... 620
Superstructure: La Raza Cosmica ..... 621
Group Identity and Psychocultural Dynamics: Hispanics or Chicanos? ..... 623
Socialization and Development ..... 625
Schools and Education ..... 627
Values and Behavior ..... 629
Gender Psychology Machismo and Marianismo ..... 630
Indigenous Psychology and Traditional Concepts of Well-Being ..... 632
Social Interaction Rules ..... 633
CHAPTER 28: ASIAN AND PACIFIC AMERICANS: THE NEW IMMIGRANTS ..... 641
The Hawaiians ..... 642
The Historical Background to Annexation ..... 643]
Infrastructure: The Demographic and Economic Transformation ..... 645
Family, Community and Political Life ..... 646
Superstructure: The Persistence of Hawaiian Culture ..... 648
The Japanese: Issei, Nisei Sansei and Yonsei ..... 649
Infrastructure: Immigrant Laborers, Ethnic Economy and Professionalization ..... 650
Demography: The Immigrant Student Laborer ..... 650
Subsistence: From Agriculturists to Business Professionals ..... 651
Economic Systems: The Ethnic Economy ..... 652
Japanese American Social Structure: Ie as Family and Community ..... 655
Family Organization: The Ie Household ..... 655
Community Organization ..... 656
Political Relations: Restriction, Internment and Compensation ..... 658
Intergroup Relations ..... 660
Superstructure: Cultural Survival and Acculturation ..... 661
Cultural Values ..... 661
Socialization and Education ..... 662
The Filipinos ..... 665
The Chinese Americans in the Twentieth Century ..... 667
The Indochinese of Southeast Asians ..... 671
Pan Asian American Culture ..... 674
EPILOGUE: THE FUTURE OF ETHNIC RELATIONS IN THE U.S. ..... 683
INDEX ..... 687
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